SCARCE ALVIN HOLLINGSWORTH AFRICAN AMERICAN ARTIST SIGNED DOROTHY TUTOR COMIC For Sale

A rare handsigned DOROTHY TUTOR COMIC SIGNED BY LEGENDARY CARTOONIST AND ARTIST ALVIN HOLLINGSWORTH
MEASURES22 1/2 X 7 INCHES AND IS HANDSIGNED BY ALVIN HOLLINGSWORTH. IN REMOVABLE PLASTIC (CAN BE SEEN IN PHOTOS) . DRAWINGS BY HOLLINGSOWRTH ALSO ON BACK OF WORK
Hollingsworth, Alvin Carl. (New York, NY, 1928-New York, NY, 2000)

Bibliography and Exhibitions

MONOGRAPHS AND SOLO EXHIBITIONS:

Adoff, Arnold, ed. with ALVIN HOLLINGSWORTH (illus.).
Black Out Loud: An Anthology of Modern Poems by Black Americans.
New York: MacMillan, 1970.
85 pp., b&w illus., biogs. A collection of 62 poems by 34 poets including: Clarence Major, Nikki Giovanni, Langston Hughes, LeRoi Jones, Ted Joans, Sonia Sanchez, Gwendolyn Brooks, Margaret Walker, Don Lee, David Henderson, and many others. Illustrated with drawings by Alvin Hollingsworth. 8vo (25 cm.), cloth, d.j. First ed.

Cold Spring Harbor (NY). Harbor Gallery.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1968.
Solo exhibition.

Cold Spring Harbor (NY). Harbor Gallery.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1969.
Solo exhibition.

Cold Spring Harbor (NY). Harbor Gallery.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1971.
Solo exhibition.

Cold Spring Harbor (NY). Harbor Gallery.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1972.
Solo exhibition.

Cold Spring Harbor (NY). Harbor Gallery.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
April 1975.
Solo exhibition.

Hewitt, John H.
The Themes of ALVIN C. HOLLINGSWORTH.
1977.
In: Black Art: An International Quarterly 2, no. 1 (Fall 1977): 4-17; 9 illus. plus cover illus., and photo. Important critical and informational article on Hollingsworth.

HOLLINGSWORTH, ALVIN C.
Art in High School.
1964.
In: American Artist Vol. 28, No. 6 (June 1964). 4to, wraps.

HOLLINGSWORTH, ALVIN C. (illus.).
Diary of Horror #1.
Avon, 1952.
Comic book with Al Hollingsworth \"bondage and skull\" illustrated color cover.

HOLLINGSWORTH, ALVIN C. (Writer, illus.).
I\'d Like the Goo-gen-heim.
Reilly & Lee, 1970.
Children\'s book. 48 pp., color illus. [Reprinted by Guggenheim Foundation, 2009.] Oblong 8vo, boards.

Los Angeles (CA). California African American Museum (as Afro-American Museum).
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1977.
Solo exhibition.

New York (NY). ANTA Washington Square Theatre.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH: Man of La Mancha Exhibition.
1967.
Solo exhibition. The hit musical Man of La Mancha began its first New York run at the ANTA Theatre on November 22, 1965 and transferred to the more conventional Martin Beck Theatre in 1968 just prior to the demolishment of ANTA. [The ANTA Washington Square Theatre was a theatre located on 40 West 4th St., in Greenwich Village, in New York City, and run by the American National Theater and Academy (ANTA.)

New York (NY). NBC Gallery.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1981.
Solo exhibition.

New York (NY). Terry Dintenfass Gallery.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH: Paintings.
October 26-November 13, 1965.
Exhib. cat. Exhibition of 26 paintings from Hollingsworth\'s \"Cry City\" series. Installed under a black light \"so that the surfaces glowed in rich interesting ways.\" (Romare Bearden, intro. to A.C. Hollingsworth-Merton Simpson, 1982.) wraps.

New York (NY). Ward Eggeston Gallery.
ALVIN C. HOLLINGSWORTH.
1961.
Solo exhibition.

Queens (NY). St. John\'s University.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1973.
Solo exhibition.

San Antonio (TX). San Antonio Cultural Center.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1980.
Solo exhibition.

Staten Island (NY). Staten Island Museum.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1969.
Solo exhibition.

Washington (DC). Noa Gallery.
AL HOLLINGSWORTH.
1980.
Solo exhibition.

GENERAL BOOKS AND GROUP EXHIBITIONS:

ANDREWS, BENNY and Rudolf Baranik, eds.
Attica Book.
South Hackensack, NJ: Customs Communications Systems, 1972.
By the Black Emergency Cultural Coalition and Artists and Writers Protest Against the War in Vietnam. ix, 47 leaves, b&w illus. Artists & poets. Includes numerous African American artists: Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, Camille Billops, Vivian Browne, Dana Chandler, Leroy Clarke, Art Coppedge, J. Brooks Dendy, Melvin Edwards, Al Hollingsworth, Manuel Hughes, Cliff Joseph, Jacob Lawrence, Faith Ringgold, Vincent Smith. (Numerous leftist white artists involved as well: Antonioni Frasconi, Leon Golub, Jacob Landau, Alice Neel, Robert Morris, Nancy Spero, Ronald King, D. Cusic, among others.) Folio (36 x 28 cm.), pictorial wraps. First ed.

AUZENNE, VALLIERE RICHARD, ed.
The Catalogue of the Barnett-Aden Collection.
Tampa: The Museum of African American Art, 1995.
144 pp., 80 illus. Including approx. 60 full-page color plates, 13 b&w illus., notes, bibliog., inventory list of 120 works by 44 African American artists and numerous white artists, plus a small collection of African art. Full text about each artist. Pref. by Israel Tribble, commentary by Adolphus Ealing, texts by Carroll Greene. Important record of a significant collection of major works. Igoe notes that of the 79 images reproduced in this catalog, only 57 images are found among the 120 works pictured in the 1974 Anacostia Museum catalogue of the collection. 4to, gilt lettered black cloth, pictorial d.j. First ed.

BAILEY, PETER.
Artists Portray a Black Christ.
1971.
In: Ebony 26, no. 6 (April, 1971):177-180, 5 color and 3 b&w illus. Includes: LeRoy Clarke, Murry Depillars, Alvin Hollingsworth, Omar Lama, Otto Neals, Timothy Washington, Douglas R. Williams. 4to, wraps.

BEARDEN, ROMARE and HARRY HENDERSON.
A History of African-American Artists from 1792 to the Present.
New York: Pantheon Books, 1993.
xvii, 341 pp., 420 b&w, 61 color plates, extensive bibliog.; section on Alain Leroy Locke, Charles Christopher Seifert, Mary Beattie Brady. Artists include: Moses Williams, Joshua Johnston, Robert S. Duncanson, Edward M. Bannister, Grafton T. Brown, Edmonia Lewis, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Aaron Douglas, Richmond Barthé, Archibald J. Motley Jr., Palmer C. Hayden, Augusta Savage, Malvin Gray Johnson, William H. Johnson, Hale A. Woodruff, Sargent Johnson, Charles H. Alston, Edzier Cortor, Beauford Delaney, Joseph Delaney, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Jacob Lawrence, Norman Lewis, Hughie Lee-Smith, Ellis Wilson, William Edmondson, Elijah Pierce, Horace Pippin, James A. Porter, Lois Mailou Jones, James Lesesne Wells, Charles White, Elizabeth Catlett, John T. Biggers, Carrol H. Simms, Alma W. Thomas, Ed Wilson, James W. Washington, Jr., Richard Mayhew. Large 4to (31 cm.), cloth, dust jacket. First ed.

Beauford, Fred, ed.
Black Creation: A Quarterly Review of Black Arts and Letters Vol. 3 (Fall 1971).
1971.
48 pp. Includes: David Bustill Bowser, David Scott Brown, John G. Chaplin (as J.W.), Roy DeCarava, Robert M. Douglass, Jr., Robert S. Duncanson, Charles Farley, Willie Gonzalez, James Green, William A. Harper, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Eddie Holmes, Jeanne Johnson (\"Bobby 1971\"), Malvin Gray Johnson, Edmonia Lewis, Lorraine Logan (\"Four Drawings\"), Dox Thrash.

Beauford, Fred, ed.
Black Creation: A Quarterly Review of Black Arts and Letters Vol. 3 (Spring 1972).
1972.
Includes: Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Richard Hunt, Lester L. Johnson, Jr., Jacob Lawrence, Tom Lloyd, Joe Overstreet, et al.

Beauford, Fred, ed.
Black Creation: A Quarterly Review of Black Arts and Letters Vol. 3 (Winter 1972).
1972.
Includes: Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, David Scott Brown, Elizabeth Catlett, Leroy Clarke, Donald Earley, Sam Gilliam, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Richard Hunt, Ben Jones, Jacob Lawrence, Tom Lloyd, Stephen Mayo, Leon Meeks, John P. Osborn, Joe Overstreet, et al.

Beauford, Fred, ed.
Black Creation: A Quarterly Review of Black Arts and Letters Vol. 3 (Winter 1973).
1972-73.
Includes: Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Tom Lloyd.

BIRMINGHAM (AL). Birmingham Museum of Art.
Spiral: Perspectives on an African-American Art Collective.
December 5, 2010-March 6, 2011.
Group exhibition. Included: Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Romare Bearden, Calvin Douglass, Perry Ferguson, Reginald Gammon, Felrath Hines, Alvin Hollingsworth, Norman Lewis, William Majors, Richard Mayhew, Earl Miller, Merton Simpson, James Yeargans, Hale Woodruff. [Traveled to: Studio Museum in Harlem, July 14-October 23, 2011.]

Black Shades.
Black Shades 1 (February 1971).
1971.
Includes: Benny Andrews, Abdullah Aziz, G. Falcon Beazer, Kay Brown, Vivian Browne (as Brown), Dana Chandler, Gaylord Hassan, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Bill Howell, Norman Lewis, Richard Mayhew, Otto Neals, Ademola Olugebefola, Hale Woodruff, et al.

Black Shades.
Black Shades 2 (November 1971).
1971.
Includes: Benny Andrews, Betty Blayton, Ashley Bryan, Bernie Casey, Elizabeth Catlett, Leroy Clarke, James Denmark, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, John Outterbridge, Fred Williams, et al.

BOSTON (MA). Museum of Fine Arts.
Afro-American Artists: New York and Boston.
May 19-June 23, 1970.
92 pp. exhib. cat, 67 b&w illus. of work by 69 artists, exhib. checklist. Co-curated by Edmund Barry Gaither and artist Barnet Rubinstein. Intro. by Edmund B. Gaither. Important early exhibition. Includes: Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, Ellsworth Ausby, Malcolm Bailey, Ellen Banks, Romare Bearden, Robert Blackburn, Betty Blayton, Ronald Boutte, Lynn Bowers, Frank Bowling, Marvin Brown, Calvin Burnett, Dana C. Chandler, John Chandler, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Ed Clark, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Emilio Cruz, Avel DeKnight, Henry DeLeon, Milton Derr (as Milton Johnson), Stanley Pinckney, James Denmark, Reginald Gammon, Felrath Hines, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Bill Howell, Zell Ingram, Gerald Jackson, Daniel L. Johnson, Ben Jones, Lois Mailou Jones, Tonnie O. Jones, Cliff Joseph, Harriet Kennedy, Hughie Lee-Smith, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Al Loving, Richard Mayhew, Edward McCluney, Jr., Algernon Miller, Joe Overstreet, Louise Parks, Stanley Pinckney, Jerry Pinkney, John W. Rhoden, Bill Rivers, Mahler Ryder, Raymond Saunders, Thomas Sills, Alfred J. Smith, Vincent D. Smith, Richard Stroud, Alma Thomas, Bob Thompson, Lovett Thompson, Russ Thompson, Lloyd Toone, Luther Vann, Paul Waters, Richard Waters, Jack White, Yvonne Williams, John Wilson, Hale Woodruff, Richard Yarde. Sq. 4to (26 cm.), pictorial self-wraps. First ed.

CATTELL, JACQUES, ed.
Who\'s Who in American Art 16.
New York: Bowker, 1984.
Curators who are not also artists are included in this bibliographic entry but are not otherwise listed in the database: We are NOT going to go through all of these volumes over the decades; this one is catalogued simply to record the degree to which living African American artists had entered the conciousness of the mainstream American art world as of 1984. [Should be consulted along with Falk\'s Who Was Who in American Art (1985) to complete the \"awareness list\" as of the mid-1980s.] 160 artists are included here along with 1000 pages of far more obscure white artists: p. 21, Benny Andrews, 33, Ellsworth Ausby, 50, Richmond Barthé; 57, Romare Bearden, 76, John Biggers, 83, Betty Blayton, 98, Frank Bowling, 108, Arthur Britt, 112, Wendell Brooks, 116, Marvin Brown, 117-18, Vivian Browne, 121, Linda Goode Bryant, 128, Calvin Burnett, 129, Margaret Burroughs, 132, Carole Byard, 133, Walter Cade, 148, Yvonne Pickering Carter, 168, Claude Clark, 178-79, Floyd Coleman, 179, Robert Colescott, 181, Paul Collins, 184, James Conlon, 188-89, Arthur Coppedge; 191, Eldzier Cortor, Averille Costley-Jacobs, 198, Allan Crite; 210, D\'Ashnash-Tosi [Barbara Chase-Riboud], 213-14, Alonzo Davis, 219-20, Roy DeCarava, 222, Avel DeKnight, 226, Richard Dempsey, 228, Murry DePillars, 237, Raymond Dobard, 239, Jeff Donaldson, 243, John Dowell, 246, David Driskell, 256, Allan Edmunds, 256-57, James Edwards, 260, David Elder, 265, Whitney John Engeran, 267, Marion Epting, 270, Burford Evans, 271, Minnie Evans, 271-72, Frederick Eversley, 277, Elton Fax, 304, Charlotte Franklin, 315, Edmund Barry Gaither (curator), 317, Reginald Gammon, 325, Herbert Gentry, 326, Joseph Geran, 328, Henri Ghent (curator), 332, Sam Gilliam, 346, Russell Gordon, 354, Rex Goreleigh, 361, Eugene Grigsby, 375, Robert Hall, 380, Leslie King-Hammond (curator), 381, Grace Hampton, 385, Marvin Harden, 406, Barkley Hendricks, 418, Leon Hicks, 414, Freida High-Wasikhongo, 424-25, Al Hollingsworth, 428, Earl Hooks, 433, Humbert Howard, 439, Richard Hunt, 450, A. B. Jackson, Oliver Jackson; 451, Suzanne Jackson, 454, Catti James, Frederick James, 464, Lester L. Johnson; 467, Ben Jones, 467-68, Calvin Jones, 469, James Edward Jones, Lois Jones, 471, Theodore Jones, 489, Paul Keene; 492, James Kennedy, 495-96, Virginia Kiah, 535, Raymond Lark, 540-41, Jacob Lawrence, 546, Hughie Lee-Smith, 557, Samella Lewis, 586, Cheryl Ilene McClenney (arts admin.), 595, Anderson Macklin, 620, Philip Lindsay Mason, 625, Richard Mayhew, 597, Oscar McNary, 598, Kynaston McShine (curator), 610, 637, Marianne Miles a.k.a. Marianne; 638, Earl Miller, 640-41, Lev Mills, 649, Evangeline Montgomery; 653, Norma Morgan, 655, Keith Morrison, 657, Dewey Mosby (curator), 671, Otto Neals, 693, Ademola Olugebefola, 700, Hayward Oubré, John Outterbridge, Wallace Owens, 702, William Pajaud, 706, James Parks, 710, Curtis Patterson, 711, Sharon Patton (curator), 711-12, John Payne, 720, Regenia Perry (curator), 724, Bertrand Phillips; 727, Delilah Pierce, 728, Vergniaud Pierre-Noël, 729, Stanley Pinckney, Howardena Pindell, 744, Leslie Price, Arnold Prince, 747, Mavis Pusey, 752, Bob Ragland, 759, Roscoe Reddix, 763, Robert Reid, 768, John Rhoden, 772, John Riddle, Gregory Ridley, 774, Faith Ringgold, 778, Lucille Roberts, 803, Mahler Ryder, 804, Betye Saar, 815, Raymond Saunders, 834, John Scott, 841, James Sepyo, 857, Thomas Sills, 859, Jewel Simon, 861, Merton Simpson, Lowery Sims (curator); 865, Van Slater, 869, Dolph Smith, 873, Vincent Smith, 886, Francis Sprout, 890-91, Shirley Stark, 898, Nelson Stevens, 920, Luther Stovall, 909, Robert Stull, 920, Ann Tanksley, James Tanner, 924, Rod Taylor, 922, William Bradley Taylor [Bill Taylor], 929, Elaine Thomas, 946, Curtis Tucker, 949, Leo Twiggs, 970, Larry Walker, 977, James Washington, 979, Howard Watson, 994, Amos White, 995, Franklin White, 996 Tim Whiten, 1001-2, Chester Williams, 1003, Randolph Williams, Todd Williams, Walter Williams, William T. Williams, 1005, Edward Wilson, George Wilson, 1005-6, John Wilson, 1007, Frank Wimberley, 1016, Rip Woods, 1017, Shirley Woodson, 1019, Bernard Wright, 1025, Charles Young, 1026, Kenneth Young, Milton Young.

CHARLOTTE (NC). Bank of America Gallery and Mint Museum of Art.
Celebration and Vision: The Hewitt Collection of African-American Art.
Charlotte: Bank of America, 1999.
ix, 101 pp., illus., bibliog. Text by Todd D. Smith. The Hewitt Collection was purchased by the Bank of America as a gift for the Afro-American Cultural Center. Includes 55 works by 20 artists: Charles Alston, Romare Bearden, John T. Biggers, Margaret Burroughs, Elizabeth Catlett, Ernest Crichlow, James Denmark, Jonathan Green, J. Eugene Grigsby, Earl Hill, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Ronald Joseph, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Virginia Evans Smit, Ann Tanksley, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Ellis Wilson, Frank Wimberley, Hale Woodruff. 4to (28 x 23 cm.), wraps. First ed.

CHICAGO (IL). Chicago Public Library.
WPA and the Black Artist: Chicago and New York.
1978.
16 pp., color cover illus., 17 b&w illus. Checklist of 62 works by 13 New York artists and 21 Chicago artists. Intro. by Ruth Ann Stewart. Artists included: Charles Alston, Robert Blackburn, Selma Burke, Margaret Burroughs, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Joseph Delaney, Aaron Douglas, Rex Goreleigh, Vertis Hayes, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Norman Lewis, Archibald Motley, Gordon Parks, Augusta Savage, Charles White, Henry Avery, Richmond Barthé, William Carter, Charles Dawson, Walter W. Ellison, Ramon Gabriel, Bernard Goss, Fred Hollingsworth, Joseph Kersey, William McBride, Frank Neal, Marion Perkins, Charles Sebree, Dox Thrash, Vernon Winslow. Biographies mention Alonzo Aden, James Porter, Hale Woodruff. [Traveled to: Studio Museum in Harlem, New York, NY.] 8vo, stapled stiff wraps.

COLUMBIA (SC). Fine Arts Gallery, Benedict College.
Columbia Collects: African American Art Collected by the Citizens of Columbia.
February 4-27, 2001.
Group exhibition. Curated by collector Marjorie Hammock. Includes: Richard Barclay, Romare Bearden, Lashun Beal, Beverly Buchanan, John Biggers, Bob Carter, Elizabeth Catlett, Virginia Cox, Ernest Crichlow, Willis (Bing) Davis, Roy DeCarava, Herbert Gentry, Floyd Gordon, Jonathan Green, Jessie Guinyard, Al Hollingsworth, Jacob Lawrence, Bob Lanier, Larry Lebby, Norman Lewis, Arthur Rose, Leo Twiggs, Alvin Staley, John Lockheart, Samuel Osumba, John Mitchell, Adrienne S. Patel, Colin Quashie, Alabados Luis Franca, Pheoris West, James Wilder, Adewale Williams, Cecil Williams, John Wilson, Hale Woodruff.

COLUMBIA (SC). If ART Gallery.
Salon III - The Print Exhibition.
January 15-February 4, 2009.
Group exhibition of prints in different techniques. Included: Herbert Gentry, Tonya Gregg, Alvin C. Hollingswroth, Richard Hunt, Sam Middleton.

DOVER, CEDRIC.
American Negro Art.
New York: New York Graphic Society, 1960.
186 pp., over 300 illus., 8 color plates, bibliog. by Maureen Dover, index of artists and works, general index. Ground-breaking study, still extremely important for illustrations of work by artists not illustrated elsewhere, and many others mentioned as well. Includes (some with only brief mention): John Henry Adams, Jr., Alonzo Aden, William Artis, Henry Bannarn, Edward Bannister, Richmond Barthé, Romare Bearden, John Biggers, Robert Blackburn, Elizabeth Catlett, Barbara Chase, Irene Clark, Claude Clark, Eldzier Cortor, Charles C. Davis, Beauford Delaney, Richard Dempsey, Aaron Douglas, Robert Duncanson, Elton Fax, Meta Warrick Fuller, Rex Goreleigh, Eugene Grigsby, Jr., Phillip Hampton, Edwin A. Harleston, William M. Hayden, Vertis Hayes, G. W. Hobbs (now known to be white), Alvin Hollingsworth, Earl Hooks, Humbert Howard, Julien Hudson, Richard Hunt, May Howard Jackson, Wilmer Jennings, Malvin Gray Johnson, William H. Johnson, Sargent Johnson, Joshua Johnston, Lois Mailou Jones, Jack Jordan, Joseph Kersey, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Edmonia Lewis, Norman Lewis, Edward Loper, Scipio Moorhead, Archibald Motley, Haywood Oubré, Marion Perkins, Harper Phillips, Horace Pippin, James Porter, Patrick Reason, John Rhoden, John Robinson, Walter Sanford, Augusta Savage, Charles Sebree, Carroll Simms, Merton Simpson, William Simpson, Henry O. Tanner, Alma Thomas, Dox Thrash, Eugene Warburg, James Wells, Charles White, Walter Williams, Stan Williamson, Ed Wilson, Edwin E. Wilson, Ellis Wilson, John Wilson, Hale Woodruff. [Reviews: Margaret Burroughs, Freedomways 1 (Spring 1961):107-110; Romare Bearden, Leonardo [Oxford, England] 3 (Apr. 1970):241-243; Numa J. Roussève, Interracial Review [St. Louis, MO] 34 (May 1961):140-141.] 8vo (25 cm.), cloth, d.j. First ed.

FINE, ELSA HONIG.
The Afro-American Artist: A Search for Identity.
New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, 1973.
x, 310 pp., 342 b&w illus., 38 color plates, bibliography and notes, index. Survey of work from the colonial period through the 1970s. Approx. 100 artists represented. An important reference work with many women artists included: Charles Alston, Benny Andrews, Malcolm Bailey, Edward Bannister, Amiri Baraka, Richmond Barthé, Romare Bearden, Henry Bibb, Betty Blayton, Grafton Tyler Brown, Kay Brown, Dana Chandler, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Emilio Cruz, Thomas Day, Beauford Delaney, Joseph Delaney, Jeff Donaldson, Aaron Douglas, Robert M. Douglass, Jr., Robert S. Duncanson, Melvin Edwards, Frederick J. Eversley, Allan Freelon, Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, Reginald Gammon, Sam Gilliam, Henry Gudgell, David Hammons, Marvin Harden, William A. Harper, Palmer Hayden, Felrath Hines, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Julien Hudson, Richard Hunt, Bill Hutson, Walter C. Jackson, Daniel Larue Johnson, Malvin Gray Johnson, Marie Johnson, Milton Derr (as Milton Johnson), Joshua Johnston, Ben Jones, Lois Mailou Jones, Cliff Joseph, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Edmonia Lewis, James Lewis, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Al Loving, Richard Mayhew, Donald McIlvaine, Scipio Moorhead, Norma Morgan, Archibald Motley, George Neal, Joe Overstreet, Horace Pippin, James A. Porter, Patrick Reason, Robert Reid, Gary Rickson, Faith Ringgold, Raymond Saunders, William E. Scott, Christopher Shelton, Thomas Sills, Merton Simpson, William H. Simpson, John H. Smith, Tony Smith, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Alma Thomas, Bob Thompson, Lovett Thompson, Neptune Thurston, Ulysses Vidal, Bill Walker, Eugene Warburg, Charles White, William T. Williams, A. B. Wilson, Hale Woodruff. [Excellent quality reprint in sturdy cloth binding with all original color plates was issued by Hacker, NY, 1982.] Small, 4to, black cloth with silver lettering, d.j. First ed.

GARDEN CITY (NY). Adelphi University.
Collector\'s Choice. Selections from the African-American and Haitian Collection of John H. and Vivian D. Hewitt.
January 23-February 25, 1994.
Exhib. cat., biogs. of artists. Intro. on Haitian art. Curated by Richard Vaux. Includes: Charles Alston, Henry Bannarn, Romare Bearden, John Biggers, Elizabeth Catlett, Ernest Crichlow, James Denmark, Tom Feelings, Jonathan Green, Eugene Grigsby, Alvin Hollingsworth, Richard Mayhew, Ann Tanksley, Ellis Wilson, Frank Wimberly, Hale Woodruff. 4to, wraps. First ed.

GARDEN CITY (NY). Firehouse Gallery, Nassau Community College.
Black Artists.
Thru October 22, 1968.
Group exhibition. Included: Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, Robert Carter, Caliman G. Coxe, Ernest Crichlow, Emilio Cruz, James Denmark, Reginald Gammon, Felrath Hines, Al Hollingsworth, Jacob Lawrence, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Nathaniel Pinkney, Raymond Saunders, Al Smith, Vincent Smith, Daniel Toone, Paul Waters, Frank Wimberley, Hale Woodruff. [Review: \"Black Artists Show at Nassau College,\" New York Amsterdam News, October 12, 1968.]

GRIGSBY, J. EUGENE.
Art and Ethnics: Background for Teaching Youth in a Pluralistic Society.
Dubuque (IA): Wm. C. Brown Company, 1977.
147 pp., illus. Includes: Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, William Artis, Malcolm Bailey, Mike Bannarn, Edward M. Bannister, Richmond Barthé, Romare Bearden, John Biggers, Bob Blackburn, Betty Blayton, Selma Burke, George Washington Carver, Elizabeth Catlett, Dana Chandler, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Dan R. Concholar, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Dale Brockman Davis, Beauford Delaney, James T. Diggs, Jeff Donaldson, Aaron Douglas, Robert S. Duncanson, William M. Farrow, Perry Ferguson, Elton Fax, Doyle Foreman, Meta Vaux Fuller, Reginald Gammon, Sam Gilliam, Joseph W. Gilliard, Manuel Gomez, Rex Goreleigh, Ethel Guest, Edwin A Harleston, Palmer Hayden, Esther P. Hill, Felrath Hines, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Richard, Hunt, Bob Jefferson, Joshua Johnson, Sargent Johnson, Lois Mailou Jones, Cliff Joseph, Edward Judie, Jacob Lawrence, Edmonia Lewis, Norman Lewis, Samella Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Hughie Lee-Smith, William Majors, Richard Mayhew, Earl B. Miller, E.J. Montgomery, Scipio Moorhead, Archibald J. Motley, Robert L. Neal, John Outterbridge, Joe Overstreet, Horace Pippin, James A. Porter, Patrick Reason, Gary Rickson, Augusta Savage, Merton D. Simpson, Albert A. Smith, Vincent D. Smith, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Alma Thomas, Neptune Thurston, Ruth Waddy, Laura Wheeler Waring, James Lesesne Wells, Charles White, John Wilson, Hale Woodruff, Rip Woods, Hartwell Yeargans.

HARLEY, RALPH L., JR.
Checklist of Afro-American Art and Artists.
Kent State University Libraries, 1970.
In: Serif 7 (December 1970):3-63. What could have been the solid foundation of future scholarship is unfortunately marred by errors of all kinds and the inclusion of numerous white artists. All Black artists are cross-referenced.

HILDEBRANDT, LORRAINE and RICHARD S. AIKEN, eds.
A Bibliography of Afro-American Print and Non-Print Resources in Libraries of Pierce County, Washington.
Tacoma Community College Library, 1969.
Artists include: Charles Alston, William Artis, Henry Avery, Henry Bannarn, Edward Bannister, Richmond Barthé, Carter Bazile, Romare Bearden, Rigaud Bénoit, Charles Bible, John Biggers, Wilson Bigaud, Eloise Bishop, Robert Blackburn, Ramos Blanco (Uruguayan), James Bland, Leslie Bolling, Seymour Bottex, Elmer Brown, Fred Brown, Samuel Brown, Selma Burke, Calvin Burnett, E. Simms Campbell, William Carter, Elizabeth Catlett, Barbara Chase, Ernest Crichlow, Claude Clark, William Arthur Cooper, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Allan Crite, Harvey Cropper, Charles Dawson, Joseph Delaney, Richard Dempsey, Lillian A. Dorsey, Aaron Douglas, Glanton Dowdell, Robert S. Duncanson, William Edmondson, William Farrow, Elton Fax, Fred Flemister, Allan Freelon, Meta Fuller, Rex Goreleigh [as Gorleigh], Bernard Goss, Eugene Grigsby, John Hardrick, Edwin Harleston, William Harper, Isaac Hathaway, Palmer Hayden, William Hayden, Vertis Hayes, Geoffrey Holder, Al Hollingsworth, Humbert Howard, Richard Hunt, May Jackson, Daniel Larue Johnson, Malvin Gray Johnson, Sargent C. Johnson, William H. Johnson, Joshua Johnston, Henry B. Jones, Lois Jones, Ronald Joseph, Paul Keene, Joseph Kersey, Oliver LaGrone, Jacob Lawrence, Clarence Lawson, Hughie Lee-Smith, Edmonia Lewis, Norman Lewis, Edward Loper, John C. Lutz, Geraldine McCullough, Charles McGee, Lloyd McNeil, William Majors, Sam Middleton, Ronald C. Moody, Scipio Moorhead, Norma Morgan, Archibald Motley, Robert L. Neal, Hayward L. Oubré, Joe Overstreet, Pastor Argudin y Pedroso [as Argudin (Pastor) Pedrosa], Marion Perkins, Harper Phillips, Delilah Pierce, Horace Pippin, Robert Pious, James Porter, Elizabeth Prophet, Florence Purviance, John Robinson, Leo Robinson, Augusta Savage, William Edouard Scott, Georgette Seabrooke, Charles Sebree, Merton Simpson, William H. Simpson, Albert Alexander Smith, Marvin Smith, Thelma Johnson Streat, Henry O. Tanner, Bob Thompson, Dox Thrash [as Thrasher], Laura Waring, James Washington, James Wells [see also Lesesne Wells], Charles White, Jack Whitten, Walter Williams, Ellis Wilson, John Wilson, Hale Woodruff.

HOLMES, OAKLEY N., JR.
Black artists in America. Part two [Film].
(1971), 1991.
Producer: Oakley N. Holmes; music by Billy Taylor. Sole documentation of the 1971 national panel on African-American art. Major African-American sculptors, painters, curators, historians, and museum directors reveal the complex aspects of their unique status in the United States. An historical introduction by Romare Bearden is accompanied by rare footage of the Black art shows of the 1930s. Artists in the film include: Romare Bearden, Benny Andrews, Dana Chandler, Art Coppedge, Ernest Crichlow, Joseph Delaney, Melvin Edwards, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Nigel Jackson, Cliff Joseph, Norman Lewis, Richard Mayhew, Louise Parks, Faith RInggold, George Smith, Edward Spriggs, Ed Taylor, Hale Woodruff. Re-release on video (transfer from original 16mm. film.) VHS-NTSC. Sd, col. 41 min.

HOLMES, OAKLEY N., JR.
The Complete Annotated Resource Guide to Black American art: Books, doctoral dissertations, exhibition catalogs, periodicals, films, slides, large prints, speakers, filmstrips, video tapes, Black museums, art galleries, and much more.
Spring Valley, NY: Black Artists in America, 1978.
iii, 275 pp. A bibliographical reference superceded by Igoe who incorporated all of this information. AAVAD has not yet consulted or copied this information into the database, except where the reference appeared through other sources. Note: numerous misspellings of artists\' names. 8vo (23 cm.), glossy printed wraps; text mimeographed. First ed.

Ivoryton (CT). ART Gallery Magazine.
The ART Gallery Magazine [Vol. 13, no. 7, April 1970].
1970.
Special Afro-American issue, 2nd Double number. A16, 104 pp., b&w and color illus. Contains interviews with and statements by: John T. Biggers, Bernie Casey, Alvin Hollingsworth, Alma Thomas, Thomas Sills, Also included: Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, Ralph M. Arnold, William E. Artis, Malcolm Bailey, Edward M. Bannister, Richmond Barthé, John T. Biggers, Betty Blayton, Selma Burke, Elizabeth Catlett, Dana Chandler, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Emilio Cruz, Avel DeKnight, Aaron Douglas, John E. Dowell, Robert S. Duncanson, Eugene Eda, William Edmondson, Minnie Evans, James Gadson, Reginald Gammon, Sam Gilliam, James Herring, Felrath Hines, Richard Hunt, William H. Johnson, Lois Mailou Jones, Paul Keene, Jacob Lawrence, Edmonia Lewis, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, William Majors, Richard Mayhew, Archibald J. Motley, Donald McIlvaine, Lloyd McNeill, Jr., Ademola Olugebefola, Joe Overstreet, Horace Pippin, Patrick Henry Reason, John W. Rhoden, Thomas A. Sills, William H. Simpson, Alvin Smith, John Stevens, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Alma Thomas, Russell Thompson, Eugene Warburg, Charles White, Ellis Wilson, John W. Wilson, Hale A. Woodruff, and many more. 8vo (24 cm.; 9 x 6 in.), wraps.

Ivoryton (CT). ART Gallery Magazine.
The ART Gallery Magazine: Afro-American issue (Vol. 11, no. 7, April 1968).
1968.
Special Afro-American issue. Approx. 100 pp., b&w and color illus. Includes: Alonzo J. Aden, Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Eric Anderson, Benny Andrews, William E. Artis, Edward M. Bannister, Richmond Barthé, Romare Bearden, Sheman Beck, Ed Bereal, John T. Biggers, Betty Blayton, Sylvester Britton, Calvin Burnett, Margaret Burroughs, William S. Carter, Bernie Casey, Elizabeth Catlett, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Edward Christmas, Claude Clark, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Allan Rohan Crite, Emilio Cruz, Mary Reed Daniel, Charles C. Dawson, Beauford Delaney, Joseph Delaney, Avel DeKnight, Richard Dempsey, Jeff Donaldson, Aaron Douglas, David C. Driskell, Robert S. Duncanson, Eugene Eda, William Edmondson, Melvin Edwards, John Farrar, Frederick C. Flemister, Meta Warrick Fuller, Reginald Gammon, Sam Gilliam, Robert Glover, Russell T. Gordon, Bernard Goss, Phillip Hampton, Marvin Harden, Romaine Harris, Eugene Hawkins, Palmer Hayden, Wilbur Haynie, Reginald Helm, James Herring, Leon Hicks, Vivian Hieber (?), Felrath Hines, Alvin Hollingsworth, Humbert Howard, Richard Hunt, A.B. Jackson, Hiram E. Jackson, Daniel LaRue Johnson, Joshua Johnson, Malvin Gray Johnson, Sargent Johnson, William H. Johnson, Frederic Jones (presumably Frederick D. Jones, Jr.), Lois Mailou Jones, Robert Edmond Jones, Jack Jordan, Sr., Louis Joseph Jordan, Ronald Joseph (as Joseph Ronald), Paul Keene, Joseph Kersey, Herman King, Sidney Kumalo, Jacob Lawrence, Clarence Lawson, Clifford Lee, Hughie Lee-Smith, James Edward Lewis, Jr., Edmonia Lewis, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Alvin Loving, William Majors, Howard Mallory, Jr., David Mann, Richard Mayhew, Anna McCullough, Geraldine McCullough, Charles W. McGee, Lloyd McNeill, Jr., Earl Miller, Norma Morgan, Jimmie Mosely, Archibald J. Motley, Jr., Texeira Nash, Frank W. Neal, George E. Neal, Hayward L. Oubre, Jr., James D. Parks, Marion Perkins, Robert S. Pious, Horace Pippin, James A. Porter, Judson Powell, Ramon Price, Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, Noah Purifoy, Mavis Pusey, Robert D. Reid, John W. Rhoden, Haywood \"Bill\" Rivers, Henry C. Rollins, Mahler Ryder, Betye Saar, Raymond Saunders, William E. Scott, Charles Sebree, Jewel Simon, Merton D. Simpson, Van Slater, Carroll Sockwell, John Stevens, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Ralph M. Tate, Lawrence Taylor, John Torres, Jr., Alfred J. Tyler, Ruth G. Waddy, William Walker, Eugene Warburg, Howard N. Watson, James Lesesne Wells, Charles White, Jack H. White, Jack Whitten, Garrett Whyte, Sam William, Douglas R. Williams, Jose Williams, Todd Williams, Walter H. Williams, Stan Williamson, Ed Wilson, Ellis Wilson, John W. Wilson, Roger Wilson, Hale A. Woodruff, James E. Woods, Roosevelt (Rip) Woods, Charles Yates, Hartwell Yeargans, et al. 8vo (24 cm.; 9 x 6 in.), wraps.

JACKSON, TIM.
Pioneering Cartoonists of Color.
Creative License Studio, Inc. 1998.
Important research on African American cartoonists, including Black Press comic strips that featured African American characters, heroes and heroines in a wide variety of life situations. Much new material based on conversations with Philadelphia cartoonist, Samuel Joyner who provided background information about many of the artists whom he had the privilege of actually knowing, the Vivian Harsh Collection of Afro-American History located in the Carter G. Woodson Regional Branch of the Chicago Library. Cartoonists named include: Douglas Akins, Charles Allen, Charles H. Alston, Don Anderson, Edd Ashe, Brumsic Brandon, Jr., Buck Brown, Henry Brown, E. Simms Campbell, Walt Carr, Ted Carroll, Bill Chase, Chester Commodore, Len Cooper, Charles C. Dawson, Daniel E. Day, Elton C. Fax, Tom Feelings, Ollie Harrington, Geoff Hayes, George Herriman, Al Hollingsworth, Wilbert Holloway, Jay Jackson, Burris Jenkins, Jr., Samuel Joyner, Charles Lee, Renny Lee, Nat Low, Samuel Milai, Calvin Massey, Ralph Matthews, Tap Melvin, George Mercer, F. Langston Mitchell, Jackie Ormes, David Orro, Clovis Parker, Stan Patt, Carl Pfeufer, Roger Powell, Ric Roberts, Leslie Rogers, Hardy B. Ruffin, Ted Shearer, Gus Standard, Jerry Stewart, Elmer C. Stoner, Tom Swaja, Melvin Tapley, Morrie Turner, Clifford Van Buren, Jim B. Watson, Ted Watson, Francis Yancy. Electronic publication on web

JEGEDE, DELE.
Encyclopedia of African American Artists (Artists of the American Mosaic).
Westport (CT): Greenwood, 2009.
280 pp., b&w illus. and 8 pp. color plates, brief bibliogs. after biographical entries, short general bibliog., index. 66 artists included, some with full entries, some additional artists named in passing. Not remotely encyclopedic. Includes: Charles Alston, Olu Amoda, Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, George Andrews, Herman Kofi Bailey, Edward M. Bannister, Richmond Barthé, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Romare Bearden, John T. Biggers, Elmer Simms Campbell, George Washington Carver, Elizabeth Catlett, Sonya Clark, Robert Colescott, Larry Collins, Ed Colston, Achamyele Debela, Roy DeCarava, Gebre Desta, Buddie Jake Dial, Thornton Dial, Sr., Jeff Donaldson, Aaron Douglas, David Driskell, Melvin Edwards, Victor Ekpuk, Ben Enwonwu, Tolulope Filani, Sam Gilliam, Palmer Hayden, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Charnelle Holloway, George Hughes, Richard Hunt, Wadsworth Jarrell, William H. Johnson, Joshua Johnson, Lois Mailiou Jones, Ronald Joseph, Byron Kim, Wosene Worke Kosrof, Jacob Lawrence, Edmonia Lewis, Cynthia Lockhart, Frank (Toby) Martin, Richard, Mayhew, Carolyn Mazloomi, Julie Mehretu, Archibald Motley, Wangechi Mutu, Barbara Nesin, Odili Donald Odita, Christopher Okigbo, Bruce Onobrakpeya, Kolade Oshinowo, Gordon Parks, Thomas Phelps, Horace Pippin, Willi Posey (under Jones), Ellen Jean Price, Martin Puryear, Femi Richards, Faith Ringgold, Aminah Brenda Lynn Robinson, Betye Saar, Augusta Savage, John T. Scott, Gerard Sekoto, Thomas Shaw, Lorna Simpson, Edgar Sorrells-Adewale, SPIRAL, Renée Stout, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Fatimah Tuggar, Obiora Udechukwu, James Vanderzee, Ouattara Watts, Carrie Mae Weems, Charles White, William T. Williams, Hale Woodruff. 4to (10.1 x 7.2 in.), boards.

LEWIS, SAMELLA.
African American Art & Artists.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
302 pp., 204 illus., many in color, substantial bibliog. A history of African American art from the seventeenth-century to the \'90s. Revised and updated from Lewis\'s original publication Art: African American (1978). [See also entry on expanded edition, 2003]. Foreword by Floyd Coleman. Artists include: the slaves of Thomas Fleet, Boston,.Scipio Moorhead, Neptune Thurston, G.W.Hobbs (white artist), Joshua Johnston, Julien Hudson, Robert M. Douglass, Jr., Patrick Henry Reason, David Bustill Bowser, William Simpson, Robert S. Duncanson, Eugene Warburg, Edward Mitchell Bannister, Grafton Tyler Brown, Nelson A. Primus, Charles Ethan Porter, (Mary) Edmonia Lewis, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Meta Vaux Warrick (Fuller), William Edouard Scott, Laura Wheeler Waring, Aaron Douglas, Hale Woodruff, Palmer Hayden, Archibald Motley, Jr., Malvin Gray Johnson, Ellis Wilson, Sargent Claude Johnson, Augusta Savage, Richmond Barthé, William H. Johnson, James Lesesne Wells, Beauford Delaney, Selma Burke, Lois Mailou Jones, Alma Thomas, James A. Porter, William E. Artis, William Edmondson, Horace Pippin, Clementine Hunter, David Butler, Charles Alston, Norman Lewis, Romare Bearden, Hughie Lee-Smith, Eldzier Cortor, Jacob Lawrence, Charles White, Elizabeth Catlett, John Wilson, John Biggers, Ademola Olugebefola, Herman Kofi Bailey, Raymond Saunders, Lucille Malkia Roberts, David Driskell, Floyd Coleman, Paul Keene, Arthur Carraway, Mikelle Fletcher, Varnette Honeywood, Phoebe Beasley, Benny Andrews, Reginald Gammon, Faith Ringgold, Cliff Joseph, David Bradford, Bertrand Phillips, Manuel Hughes, Phillip Lindsay Mason, Dana Chandler, Malaika Favorite, Bob Thompson, Emilio Cruz, Leslie Price, Irene Clark, Al Hollingsworth, William Pajaud, Richard Mayhew, Bernie Casey, Floyd Newsum, Frank Williams, Louis Delsarte, William Henderson, Daniel LaRue Johnson, Joe Overstreet, Adrienne W. Hoard, Sam Gilliam, Mahler Ryder, Oliver Jackson, Eugene Coles, Vincent Smith, Calvin Jones, Pheoris West, Noah Purifoy, Ed Bereal, Betye Saar, Ron Griffin, John Outterbridge, Marie Johnson, Ibibio Fundi, John Stevens, Juan Logan, John Riddle, Richard Hunt, Mel Edwards, Allie Anderson, Ed Love, Plla Mills, Doyle Foreman, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Artis Lane, John Scott, William Anderson, Martin Puryear, Thomas Miller, Fred Eversley, Larry Urbina, Ben Hazard, Sargent Johnson, Doyle Lane, Willis (Bing) Davis, Curtis Tucker, Yvonne Tucker, Bill Maxwell, Camille Billops, James Tatum, Douglas Phillips, Art Smith, Bob Jefferson, Evangeline Montgomery, Manuel Gomez, Joanna Lee, Allen Fannin, Leo Twiggs, James Tanner, Therman Statom, Marion Sampler, Arthur Monroe, James Lawrence, Marvin Harden, Raymond Lark, Murray DePillars, Donald Coles, Joseph Geran, Ron Adams, Kenneth Falana, Ruth Waddy, Van Slater, Joyce Wellman, William E. Smith, Leon Hicks, Marion Epting, Russell Gordon, Stephanie Pogue, Devoice Berry, Margo Humphrey, Howard Smith, Jeff Donaldson, Lev Mills, Carol Ward, David Hammons, Michael Kelly Williams, Laurie Ourlicht, Gary Bibbs, Houston Conwill, Mildred Howard, Martha Jackson-Jarvis, Alison Saar, Lorenzo Pace. 4to (28 cm.), wraps. 2nd edition (Revised). Reprinted 1994.

LEWIS, SAMELLA.
Art: African American.
Los Angeles: Hancraft, 1990.
x (ii), 298 pp., 294 illus. (104 in color), bibliog. Excellent survey of African American art as of the mid-70s, with a discriminating selection of plates. Unfortunately very poor quality reproductions. [All 169 artists are cross-referenced, although not separately listed here.) 4to, wraps. Second revised ed. 1990

LEWIS, SAMELLA S. and RUTH G. WADDY, eds.
Black Artists on Art Vol. 2.
Los Angeles: Contemporary Crafts, Inc., 1971.
xii, 140 pp., 199 illus., 86 in color, statements and brief bios for all artists, index. Intro. by Samella Lewis. Excellent reference. Benny Andrews, William Artis, Dorothy Atkins, Casper Banjo, Cleveland Bellow, Gloria Bohanon, Shirley Bolton, Vivian Browne, Margaret Burroughs, Nathaniel Bustion, Sheryle Butler, Yvonne Catchings, Elizabeth Catlett, Mitchell Caton, George Clack, Floyd Coleman, Alonzo Davis, Bing Davis, Dale Davis, Murry DePillars, Kenneth Dickerson, Eugene Eda, Cyril Fabio, Kenneth Falana, Thomas Feelings, Alice Gafford, Robert Glover, Ron Griffin, Bob Heliton, Dion Henderson, William Henderson, Ernest Herbert, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Humbert Howard, Suzanne Jackson, Rosalind Jeffries, Paul Keene, Gwendolyn Knight, Doyle Lane, Jacob Lawrence, Edward Love, Ron Moore, Norma Morgan, Isaac Nommo, Denise Palm, Leslie Price, William Prior, Noah Purifoy, Roscoe Reddix, Jerry Reed, John Riddle, Bernard Rollins, John Russell, Van Slater, Arenzo Smith, George Smith, Howard Smith, Nelson Stevens, Rod Taylor, Roberta Thompson, Charlene Tull, Leo Twiggs, Alfred Tyler, Anna Tyler, Bernard Upshur, Florestee Vance, William Walker, Carole Ward, Richard Waytt, Fred R. Wilson, Stanley Wilson, Charles Young, Milton Young. 4to, cloth, d.j. First ed.

Lewis, Samella, ed.
Black Art: an international quarterly Vol. 1, No. 3 (Spring 1977).
1977.
68 pp., b&w and color illus. Articles include: Festac \'77; Wilmer James: A Room Full of Paintings; Dana Chandler: Pan-African Artist; Sculptor Mildred Thompson\'s experiences in Europe and United States; Alvin Hollingsworth: 12 Hints on Collecting African American Art; Carroll Parrott Blue portfolio; Profile: Varnette Honeywood; Kojo Fosu: Contemporary African Art (5 illus. and partial exhibition checklist); Adolphus Ealey: The Architecture of the Somba People. Artwork by: Dana Chandler, Mildred Thompson, Varnette Honeywood, Zarihum Ytmgts, Kodjo Michel, Afewerk Tekie, Weta Weta, plus photographs by Carroll Blue, photographs of architecture of the Somba People, Festac \'77 photos by Claude Lewis and J. Fletcher Thompson. 4to, wraps.

Lewis, Samella, ed.
Black Art: an international quarterly Vol. 2, No. 1 (Fall 1977).
1977.
68 pp., b&w and color illus. Articles include: Themes of Alvin C. Hollingsworth (by John H. Hewitt); Charles White Retrospective (by Bert Hammond); Ruth Lucetty Bell: Folk Artist (by Mati Robinson); Black Heritage In the Theatre Arts; Profile on arts commissioner E.J. Montgomery; Review of the play Our Lan\' (by James V. Hatch); Post-World War I art developments and artists; Fashion and textile design; The Artist in the Market Place; Art news. Artwork by: Dewey Crumpler, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Charles White, Ruth Lucetty Bell, Aaron Douglas, Jacob Lawrence, Dana Chandler, Howard Smith, Elizabeth Catlett, Camille Billops, plus documentary photography. 4to, wraps.

LOS ANGELES (CA). Dickson Art Galleries, UCLA Art Galleries.
The Negro In American Art: One Hundred and Fifty Years of Afro-American Art.
September 11-October 16, 1966.
63 pp. exhib. cat., 47 b&w illus., color cover plate, checklist of over 100 works by 48 artists, biogs., awards, exhibs., colls. for each artist. Curated with foreword by Frederick Wight; text by James A. Porter. [Porter\'s text originally appeared in Presence Africaine, and was re-edited for this publication.] In addition to the usual famous dozen, there are artists included here who are not in many of the other group shows due to the California emphasis. Includes: Charles Alston, Edward M. Bannister, Romare Bearden, Edmund Bereal, Calvin Burnett, Emilio Cruz, Aaron Douglas, David Driskell, Robert Duncanson, Melvin Edwards, Sam Gilliam, Marvin Harden, Eugene Hawkins, Wilbur Haynie, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Richard Hunt, Daniel L. Johnson, Sargent Johnson, Jacob Lawrence, William Majors, David Mann, Charles McGee, Lloyd G. McNeill, Norma Morgan, Horace Pippin, Judson Powell, Noah Purifoy, Mavis Pusey, Robert Reid, Betye Saar, Raymond Saunders, Jewel W. Simon, Van Slater, John Stevens, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Robert Thompson, Ruth G. Waddy, Charles White, Todd Williams, Ed Wilson, Roosevelt Woods, Charles E. Yates. [Traveled to: University of California, Davis, November 1-December 15, 1966; Fine Arts Gallery of San Diego, San Diego, CA, January 5-February 12, 1967; Oakland Art Museum, Oakland, CA, February 24-March 19, 1967.] 4to (28 cm.), stapled wraps. First ed.

MINNEAPOLIS (MN). Minneapolis Institute of Arts.
30 Contemporary Black Artists.
October 17-November 24, 1968.
Unpag. (20 pp) exhib. cat., 2 b&w illus., list of artists with brief biog and checklist of 53 works (several works for each artist.) Intro. by Roger Mandle. A significant traveling show mounted with the assistance of Ruder & Finn. Includes: Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, Betty Blayton, Peter Bradley, Floyd Coleman, Emilio Cruz, Avel DeKnight, Melvin Edwards, Reginald Gammon, Sam Gilliam, Robert Gordon, Marvin Harden, Felrath Hines, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Richard Hunt, Daniel Larue Johnson, Jacob Lawrence, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, William Majors, Richard Mayhew, Earl Miller, Robert Reid, Mahler B. Ryder, Betye Saar, Raymond Saunders, Thomas Albert Sills, Jack White, Ed Wilson. (Note the list of artists in the traveling show seems to have been somewhat different. The same 30 were shown at the IBM Gallery, NY (April 28-May 29, 1969) but the brochure indicates that 8 smaller works were substituted for the works exhibited in Minneapolis. At the Houston Contemporary Art Museum (January 20-February 16, 1970), however, several artists were added: George Carter, Cliff Joseph, James Denmark, Hughie Lee-Smith, Russ Thompson, Lloyd Toone; others seem to have been omitted: Melvin Edwards, Daniel Larue Johnson, William Majors, Mahler B. Ryder. Small sq. 4to, stapled wraps. First ed.

Murray, Alma and Robert Thomas, eds.
The Journey.
New York: Scholastic, 1970.
Children\'s black literature book, illustrated by Leo and Diane Dillon, Tom Feelings, George Ford, and Alvin Hollingsworth. Authors include: including Langston Hughes, Arna Bontemps, Portia Washington, and Lorraine Hansberry, et al. 8vo, wraps.

MURRAY, ALMA and ROBERT THOMAS, eds.
The Journey.
New York: Random House, 1970.
192 pp. Illustrated by Diane and Leo Dillon, Tom Feelings, George Ford, and Alvin Hollingsworth. 8vo, cloth, d.j.

NEW YORK (NY). Acts of Art, Inc.
Black Artists in the New York Scene.
n.d. (1974).
Exhibition flier, illus., statement by Nigel Jackson. Includes 22 artists: Romare Bearden, Camille Billops, Vivian Browne, Art Coppedge, James Denmark, Alvin Hollingsworth, Manuel Hughes, Norman Lewis, Tyrone Mitchell, Dindga McCannon, Otto Neals, Enid Richardson, Gregory Ridley, Jr., Faith Ringgold, Donald J. Robertson, Ernestine Robertson, Virginia Smit, Vincent D. Smith, Lloyd Toone, Grace Y. Williams, Hale Woodruff. Folded sheet.

NEW YORK (NY). American Greetings Gallery.
New Voices: 15 New York Artists.
March 12-May 3, 1968.
Group exhibition. Included Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, Betty Blayton, Emilio Cruz, Avel DeKnight, Melvin Edwards, Reginald Gammon, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Tom Lloyd, William Majors, Earl Miller, Mahler Ryder, Raymond Saunders, Jack H. White, Jack Whitten. [Co-sponsored by Ruder and Finn Fine Arts, Inc. and the Studio Museum in Harlem.]

NEW YORK (NY). Christopher Street Gallery.
The Spiral.
May 15-June 5, 1964.
9 pp. exhib. cat., illus., photos, biogs. of participants. Preview date listed as May 14. Intro. by Romare Bearden. Included: Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Romare Bearden, Calvin Douglass, Perry Ferguson, Reginald Gammon, Felrath Hines, Alvin Hollingsworth, Norman Lewis, William Majors, Richard Mayhew, Earl Miller, Merton Simpson, Hale Woodruff, James Yeargans. [Not all participants were \"members\" of Spiral at the time of the exhibition.] On the dating of the first Spiral exhibition, see Courtney Martin, Spiral, Art Spaces Archives Project, fn.44 which summarizes the problem in detail

NEW YORK (NY). Ebony Editors.
Ebony Handbook.
Chicago: Johnson Publisnt Company Pub., 1974.
Of historical interest only. Includes over 150 artists, more than double the number who were included in Ebony\'s Negro Handbook of 1966. Nonetheless, this represents a very limited selection compared with the St. Louis Index (1972) and Cederholm (1973) which had been published in the two years immediately preceeding this revision. Includes: Charles Alston, Eileen Anderson, Ralph Arnold, William E. Artis, Kwasi Asante, Richmond Barthé, Romare Bearden, Sherman Beck, Ben Bey, Michelle C. Bey, John T. Biggers, Gloria Bohanon, Lorraine Bolton, Shirley Bolton, Elmer Brown, Samuel J. Brown, Herbert Bruce, Joan Bryant, Selma Burke, Calvin Burnett, Margaret Burroughs, Nathaniel Bustion, William S. Carter, Elizabeth Catlett, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Benjamin Clark, Claude Clark, Irene V. Clark, Floyd Coleman, Eldzier Cortor, Samuel Countee, G. C. Coxe, Ernest Crichlow, Allan Rohan Crite, Alonzo J. Davis, Charles C. Dawson, Richard Dempsey, J. Brooks Dendy, Jeff Donaldson, Harold S. Dorsey, Aaron Douglas, Annette Ensley, Marion Epting, P. Fernand (listed only in this publication), Frederick C. Flemister, Ausbra Ford, Leroy Foster, Meta Vaux Fuller, Rex Goreleigh, Joseph E. Grey, J. Eugene Grigsby, John W. Hardrick, Oliver Harrington, Frank Hayden, Palmer Hayden, Vertis C. Hayes, Eselean Henderson, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Humbert Howard, Kenneth Howard (in this publication only), Richard Hughes, Richard Hunt, J.D. Jackson, Wilmer Jennings, Lester L. Johnson, Malvin Gray Johnson, Sargent Johnson, William H. Johnson, Ben Jones, Lawrence Jones, Lois Maillou Jones, Mark Jones, Charles Keck, James E. Kennedy, Joseph Kersey, Henri Umbaji King, Omar Lama, Jacob Lawrence, Clifford Lee, Hughie Lee-Smith, Leon Leonard, Edmonia Lewis, Norman Lewis, Edward L. Loper, Anderson Macklin, William Majors, Stephen Mayo, Geraldine McCullough, Eva Hamlin Miller, Rosetta Dotson Minner, Corinne Mitchell, James Mitchell, Norma Morgan, Jimmie Mosely, Archibald J. Motley, Dindga McCannon, David Normand, Hayward Oubre, Sandra Peck, Marion Perkins, Alvin Phillips, Delilah Pierce, Horace Pippin, James A. Porter, Georgette Seabrooke Powell, Leo Twiggs, Al Tyler, Anna Tyler, Steve Walker, John Wilson, Hale Woodruff, Kenneth V. Young, et al.

NEW YORK (NY). Freedomways Associates.
Freedomways: A Quarterly Review of the Freedom Movement: Vol. 16, no. 4 (1976).
1976.
This issue has cover art by Alvin Hollingsworth; Cartoons by Brumsic Brandon, Jr. 8vo, wraps.

NEW YORK (NY). Koltnow Gallery.
Spanish Manner Exhibition.
1867.
Group exhibition. Included: Alvin C. Hollingsworth works from Man of La Mancha.series and landscapes.

NEW YORK (NY). Leroy Nieman Art Center, Columbia University School of Visual Arts.
Classics & Contemporaries.
Thru October 15, 2013.
Group exhibition of works from the collection of Averlyn Archer and Donald Clayton. Included: Nathaniel Barnes, Creighton Berry, Nancy Brandon, Carolyn Cole, Adger Cowans, Shubert Denis, Reginald K. Gee, Herbert Gentry, AC Hollingsworth, Otto Neals, Charly Palmer, Willie Torbert, Emmett Wigglesworth and Walter Williams.

NEW YORK (NY). Lever House.
Counterpoints 23.
1967.
Group exhibition. Included: Betty Blayton, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Earl Miller, Faith Ringgold, Mahler Ryder, Jack H. White.

NEW YORK (NY). Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Inner World of Black Artists.
1969.
Group exhibition. Included: Alvin C. Hollingsworth.

NEW YORK (NY). Museum of Comic and Cartoon Art.
Looking for a Face Like Mine.
May 12-September 10, 2007.
Group exhibition of African American comics artists. Curated by Professor William H. Foster III, a comics creator, scholar and historian. Included: comic strip artwork by 1950’s artist Alvin Hollingsworth (Scorchy Smith), contemporary cartoonist Keith Knight (The K Chronicles), strip legend Morrie Turner (Wee Pals), as well as comic book art by Denys Cowan (Black Panther), Zina Saunders (Static), and underground cartoonist Larry Fuller (New Funny Book), among many others, along with panel cartoons and animation art. [Unrelated to 2004 video with same title.]

NEW YORK (NY). National Academy of Design.
144th Annual Exhibition: Oil Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Graphic Arts.
February 22-March 23, 1969.
100 + [20] pp. exhib. cat., 26 b&w illus., checklist of 305 works (152 oil paintings, 44 sculptures, 51 graphic arts, and 58 watercolors), index of exhibitors, list of prizewinners, directory of Academicians and Associates and list of all past members. Group exhibition. Included: Al Hollingsworth, Lois Mailou Jones, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Richard Mayhew. 12mo, wraps.

NEW YORK (NY). Riverside Museum of Art.
8 + 8 [Eight plus Eight].
1969.
28 pp. exhib. cat., b&w illus. Included: Benny Andrews, Betty Blayton, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Cliff Joseph, Mahler Ryder. Oblong 4to, stapled black wraps.

NEW YORK (NY). Salmagundi Club.
The First Annual sale of Afro-American Paintings, Drawings, Sculpture, and Prints.
October 25, 1980.
114 pp., over 170 lots (including over 140 African American works of art by dozens of artists), b&w illus., brief commentary, exhibs., selected bibliog. for most artists. A significant and substantial early sale of African American work with African sculpture from Nigeria and fine antiquities from Egypt. 8vo, stapled wraps. First ed.

NEW YORK (NY). Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.
Art of the Masters: A Survey of African American Images, 1980-2000.
April 5-30, 2001.
Group exhibition. Included: Benny Andrews, John Biggers, Romare Bearden, Kwame Brathwaite, Margaret Burroughs, Elizabeth Catlett, Adger Cowans, Willis Bing Davis, David Driskell, Reginald Gammon, Sam Gilliam, Hugh Grannum, Al Hinton, Al Hollingsworth, Wadsworth Jarrell, Ben Jones, Calvin Jones, Lois Mailou Jones, Jacob Lawrence, Jon Lockard, Samella Lewis, Al Loving, Richard Mayhew, E.J. Montgomery, Otto Neals, Aaron Ibn Pori Pitts, Greg Ridley, Betye Saar, Frank Smith, Nelson Stevens, Donald Stinson, Robert Stull, Ann Tanksley, Yvonne Edwards Tucker, Raymond Wells, Emmett Wigglesworth, Rip Woods, Shirley Woodson, et al. [Traveled to: Arts Council, Fayetteville, January 22-March 6, 2010; Chicago.]

NEW YORK (NY). Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.
Black New York Artists of the 20th Century: Selections from the Schomburg Center Collections.
November 19, 1998-March 31, 1999.
96 pp. exhib. cat., 127 illus. (36 in color), bibliog. Ed. and text by curator Victor N. Smythe. Includes 125 artists: Tina Allen, Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, Ellsworth Ausby, Abdullah Aziz, Xenobia Bailey, Ellen Banks, Richmond Barthé, Romare Bearden, Camille Billops, Bob Blackburn, Kabuya Bowens, William E. Braxton, Kay Brown, Selma Burke, Carole Byard, Elmer Simms Campbell, Nanette Carter, Elizabeth Catlett, Violet Chandler, Colin Chase, Schroeder Cherry, Ed Clark, Houston Conwill, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Emilio Cruz, Michael Cummings, Diane Davis, Lisa Corinne Davis, Francks Francois Deceus, Avel C. DeKnight, Beauford Delaney, Joseph Delaney, Louis Delsarte, James Denmark, Aaron Douglas, Taiwo Duvall, Melvin Edwards, Elton Fax, Tom Feelings, Robert T. Freeman, Herbert Gentry, Rex Goreleigh, Theodore Gunn, Inge Hardison, Oliver Harrington, Verna Hart, Palmer Hayden, Carl E. Hazlewood, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Manuel Hughes, Bill Hutson, Harlan Jackson, Laura James, Wadsworth Jarrell, Jamillah Jennings, M.L.J. Johnson, Malvin Gray Johnson, Oliver Johnson, Gwen Knight, Jacob Lawrence, Cecil Lee, Hughie Lee-Smith, Richard Leonard, Norman Lewis, Bell Earl Looney, Valerie Maynard, Dindga McCannon, Sam Middleton, Onaway K. Millar, Louis E. Mimms, Tyrone Mitchell, Mark Keith Morse, George J.A. Murray, Sr., Sana Musasama, Otto Neals, Jide Ojo, Ademola Olugebefola, James Phillips, Anderson Pigatt, Robert S. Pious, Rose Piper, Georgette Seabrooke Powell, Debra Priestly, Ronald Okoe Pyatt, Abdur-Rahman, Patrick Reason, Donald A. Reid, Earle Richardson, Faith Ringgold, Winfred J. Russell, Alison Saar, Augusta Savage, Charles Searles, Charles Sebree, James Sepyo, Milton Sherrill, Danny Simmons, Deborah Singletary, Albert Alexander Smith, Mei Tei Sing-Smith, Vincent Smith, Tesfaye Tessema, Dox Thrash, Haileyesus Tilahun, Bo Walker, Arlington Weithers, James Lesesne Wells, Charles White, Emmett Wigglesworth, Billy Doe Williams, Grace Williams, Michael Kelly Williams, Walter H. Williams, William T. Williams, Ellis Wilison, George Wilson, Ron and Addelle Witherspoon, Hale Woodruff. as well as work by members of the collectives Spiral and Weusi and the early \'70s exhibit by black women artists called Where We At, and dozens more. 4to (28 x 22 cm.), pictorial wraps. First ed.

NEW YORK (NY). Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.
Who\'s Uptown: Harlem \'87.
March 11-April 16, 1988.
56 pp., 43 full-page illus. (9 in color), checklist of 76 works, directory of 42 artists; more than half of the photos are by Dawoud Bey. Foreword Howard Dodson; intro. and curated by Deirdre Bibby. (Also issued in a limited edition of 100 copies, signed on the limitation page by thirty-seven of the exhibiting artists.) Artists in the exhibition included: O\'Neal Abel, Aubu M.A.O., Charles Burwell, Nanette Carter, Schroeder Cherry, James Conner, Houston Conwill, Michael A. Cummings, Pat Davis, Sandra Epps, Franco, David Hammons, Maren Hassinger, Joe Harris, Gaylord Hassan, Candace Hill, Al Hollingsworth, Claudia J. Hirst, Walter C. Jackson, Whitfield Lovell, Carolyn Maitland, Dindga McCannon, Algernon Miller, Tyrone Mitchell, Mark Keith Morse, Hakim Mutlaq; Nii Ahene (La) Mettle, Ademola Olugebefola, Patricia Phipps, Brian Pinkney, Debra Priestly, Okoe (Ronald) Pyatt, Faith Ringgold, Jeffrey Scales, Ed Sherman, Kaylynn Sullivan, Tesfaye Tessema, Lloyd Toone, Shawn Walker, Grace Williams, Hugh Williams, Tehran Wilson. Oblong 4to, pictorial stapled wraps. Ed. of 3000 copies.

NEW YORK (NY). Studio Museum in Harlem.
Harlem Artists \'69.
July 22-September 7, 1969.
16 pp. exhib. cat., 8 b&w illus., useful reference exhibition checklist of over 100 works by 54 artists with brief info on most artists. Intro. by Theodore Gunn. Includes James L. Archie, William Archie, Reuben Berry, Clemson Brown, David Scott Brown, Huntley Brown, Jo Butler, Benjamin Campbell, George C. Carter, William Chambers, Leroy P. Clarke, Raymond H. Daniels, Dwight E. Dates, Nicholas Davis, Morris Dawson, William E. Day, Karl Deago, Edward L. Donawa, Harold Drysdale, Julio Duverger, Kirby Duvillier, Charles Earley, Ronald Fisher, Franklin Gaskin, Meschac Gill, Gilbert H. Hatcher, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Louise Janvier, John H. Jefferson, Barry C. Johnson, Doris T. Kane, William Keith, Luckner Lazard (as Lucner), Larry Lewis, Latif A. Malik, Horacio T. Masdeu, Stephen Mayo, Leon Meeks, Oscar Moore, Wilbert Moore, John P. Osborn, Joe Overstreet, Rhomeyn Simuel, Michael J. Singletary, Carl R. Smith, Frank E. Smith, Philippe G. Smith, Fern Stanford, Njoroge Tawa, Osman Tyner, Bernard Wah, Ceola Williams (as Madam Ceola), George Lewis Wilson, et al. [Review by Peter Schjeldahl, NYT and important reply by Henri Ghent, Oct. 26, 1969) 2:27.] Oblong 12mo (15 x 23 cm.), stapled wraps. First ed.

NEW YORK (NY). Studio Museum in Harlem.
Harlem Artists \'71.
Thru mid-November, 1971.
Group exhibition. Included: Benny Andrews, Betty Blayton, Curtis Bryan, Leroy Clarke, James Denmark, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Valerie Maynard, James Phillips, Bernard Wah and Stephanie Weaver.

NEW YORK (NY). Whitney Museum of American Art.
Contemporary Black Artists in America.
April 6-May 16, 1971.
64 pp. exhib. catalogue of 84 works by 58 artists. 48 illus., 6 in color, excellent bibliog. by Libby W. Seaberg. Text by Robert Doty. Includes: Ralph Arnold, Edward A. Ausby, Roland Ayers, Frank Bowling, James Brantley, Marvin Brown, Walter Cade III, Catti, John E. Chandler, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Walter Davis, Avel DeKinight, Murry N. DePillars, David Driskell, Frederick J. Eversley, Ernest Frazier, Russell T. Gordon, William H. Henderson, Barkley Hendricks, Alvin Hollingsworth, Manuel Hughes, Nathaniel Hunter, Jr., Lester L. Johnson, Jr., B. Nathaniel Knight, Jacob Lawrence, James Lee, Hughie Lee-Smith, Tom Lloyd, Alvin Loving, Phillip L. Mason, Charles W. McGee, Lloyd G. McNeill, Algernon Miller, Norma Morgan, Howardena Pindell, Stephanie Pogue, Noah Purifoy, Mavis Pusey, Robert Reid, John Rhoden, Henry Rollins, Joseph B. Ross, Jr., Mahler B. Ryder, Betye Saar, Raymond Saunders, Charles Searles, Frank Sharpe, Thomas Sills, Vincent Smith, Evelyn P. Terry, Alma Thomas, John Torres, Charles White, Franklin A. White, Jr., Reginald Wickham, Todd Williams, Hartwell Yeargans, Elyn Zimmerman. Highly controversial exhibition from which 16 artists withdrew, including Romare Bearden, John Dowell, Melvin Edwards, Sam Gilliam, Richard Hunt, Daniel Johnson, Joe Overstreet, and William T. Williams. [Reviews included: John Canaday, \"Black Artists on View in Two Exhibitions,\" NYT, April 7, 1971:52; Lawrence Alloway, \"Art,\" The Nation 212, May 10, 1971:604-5; Grace Glueck, \"Black Show Under Fire at the Whitney,\" NYT, January 31, 1971, D25; and Glueck\'s follow-up article: \"15 of 75 Artists Leave as Whitney Exhibition Opens,\" NYT, April 6, 1971:50.] Small sq. 4to (25 cm.), cloth, d.j. First ed.

PATTON, SHARON F.
African American Art.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
319 pp., illus. throughout in color and b&w, notes, list of illus., timeline, index. Excellent new survey covering approximately 108 artists from Scipio Moorhead to Dawoud Bey, including 22 women artists: Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, Malcolm Bailey, James Presley Ball, Henry (Mike) Bannarn, Edward Bannister, Dutreuil Barjon, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Romare Bearden, Peter Bentzon, Dawoud Bey, Bob Blackburn, Grafton Tyler Brown, Vivian E. Browne, Jacob (Jacoba) Bunel, Elizabeth Catlett, Dana Chandler, Ed Clark, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Houston Conwill, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Dave (the Potter), Thomas Day, Beauford Delaney, Jean-Louis Dolliole, Jeff Donaldson, Aaron Douglas, Robert M. Douglass, Robert S. Duncanson, William Edmondson, Melvin Edwards, Minnie Evans. Frederick J. Eversley, John Frances, Meta Fuller, Reginald Gammon, Herbert Gentry, Sam Gilliam, Célestin Glapion, Thomas Goss, Jr., Henry Gudgell, David Hammons, James Hampton, Maren Hassinger, Palmer Hayden, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Richard Hunt, Bill Hutson, Clifford L. Jackson, May Howard Jackson, Martha Jackson-Jarvis, Oliver Jackson, Wadsworth A. Jarrell, Daniel Larue Johnson, Malvin Gray Johnson, Sargent Johnson, William H. Johnson, Joshua Johnston, Ben Jones, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Edmonia Lewis, Norman Lewis, Jules Lion, Tom Lloyd, Al Loving, Richard Mayhew, Sam Middleton, Scipio Moorhead, Keith Morrison, Archibald Motley, Ademola Olugebefola, Mary Lovelace O\'Neal, Howardena Pindell, Adrian Piper, Rose Piper, Horace Pippin, Harriet Powers, Noah Purifoy, Martin Puryear, Patrick Reason, Faith Ringgold, Jean Rousseau, Alison Saar, Betye Saar, Raymond Saunders, Augusta Savage, Addison Scurlock, Lorna Simpson, Merton D. Simpson, Vincent D. Smith, Thelma Streat, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Alma Thomas, Bob Thompson, Dox Thrash, James Vanderzee, Christian Walker, William W. Walker, Eugene Warburg, Charles White, Pat Ward Williams, Walter J. Williams, Hale Woodruff. 4to, cloth, d.j. First ed

PHILADELPHIA (PA). School District and Museum of the Philadelphia Civic Center.
Afro-American Artists, 1800-1969.
December 5-29, 1969.
40 pp., list of over 100 artists. Important exhibition juried by Al Hollingsworth, Reginald Gammon and Louis Sloan. Intro. by curator Randall J. Craig mentions many artists not in the exhibition. Exhibition includes: Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, Ralph Arnold, James Ayers, Frederick Bacon, Joseph C. Bailey, Janette Banks, Edward M. Bannister, Richmond Barthé, Harry W. Bayton, Romare Bearden, Betty Blayton, James Brantley, Arthur Britt, Charles E. Brown, Samuel J. Brown, Reginald Bryant, Barbara Bullock, Selma Burke, Calvin Burnett, Margaret Burroughs, Frederick Campbell, Barbara Chase-Riboud, LeRoy Clarke, Louise Clement, Eldzier Cortor, R. J. Craig, Nicholas Davis, William Day, Avel DeKnight, J. Brooks Dendy, James Denmark, Reba Dickerson (a.k.a. Reba Dickerson-Hill), Thomas Dickerson Jr., Robert Duncanson, Walter Edmonds, Cliff Eubanks Jr., Charlotte White Franklin, Allan Freelon, Reginald Gammon, Charles W. Gavin, Ranson Z. Gaymon, Walter S. Gilliam, Marvin Hardin, Bernard Harmon, Palmer Hayden, Barkley Hendricks, Alvin Hollingsworth, Humbert Howard, Alfonzo Hudson, Leroy Johnson, Malvin Gray Johnson, Sargent Johnson, William H. Johnson, Joshua Johnson, Lois M. Jones, Cliff Joseph, Paul Keene, Columbus P. Knox, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Edmonia Lewis, James Lewis, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Geraldine McCullough, Charles McGee, Thomas A. McKinney, Lloyd McNeill, Juanita Miller, Robert C. Moore, Jimmie Mosely, Horace Pippin, James Porter, Simon D. Prioleau, Nancy Elizabeth Prophet, Ed J. Purnell, Percy Ricks, Anita B. Riley, Faith Ringgold, Raymond Saunders, Charles Searles, Michael Shelton, Thomas Sills, John Simpson, Merton Simpson, Louis Sloan, Carl R. Smith, Dolphus Smith, Philippe Smith, Frank Stephens, Mary L. Stuckey, Eldridge Suggs III, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Mary Alice Taylor, Russ Thompson, Dox Thrash, Ellen Powell Tiberino, Lloyd Toone, John Wade, Cranston Oliver Walker, Laura Wheeler Waring, Howard Watson, John Brantley Wilder, Earl A. Wilkie, Ed Wilson, Hale Woodruff, Charles E. Yates, Hartwell Yeargans. 4to (26 cm.), wraps. First ed.

PLOSKI, HARRY A. and ERNEST KAISER, eds.
AFRO USA: A Reference Wok on the Black Experience.
New York: Bellwether Co., 1971.
[x], 1110 pp., 14 b&w illus. of art and visual artists, bibliog., index. Massive encyclopedic reference work with small section (pp. 702-723) devoted to visual art. Includes entries on Charles Alston, Robert Bannister, Richmond Barthe, Romare Bearden, John Biggers, William Carter, Dana Chandler, Ernest Crichlow, Aaron Douglas, Robert Duncanson, Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, Alice Gafford, Sam Gilliam, Rose Green, David Hammons, William Harper, Isaac Hathaway, Hector Hill, Richard Hunt, May Howard Jackson, Jack Jordan, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee Smith, Edmonia Lewis, Geraldine McCullough, Earl Miller, P\'lla Mills, Joseph Overstreet, Horace Pippin, Augusta Savage, Vincent Smith, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Bob Thompson, Laura Wheeler Waring, Charles White, Jack Whitten, Beulah Woodard, and Hale Woodruff. The list of \"Other Noted Negro Painters and Sculptors\" includes: Benny Andrews, William E. Artis, Henry W. Bannarn, Eloise Bishop, Betty Blayton, Selma H. Burke, E. Simms Campbell, Elizabeth Catlett, Eldzier Cortor, Charles C. Dawson, Avel DeKnight, Joseph Delaney, William McKnight Farrow, Fred C. Flemister, Allan R. Freelon, Reginald Gammon, William Giles (?), Rex Gorleigh, Stephen Greene (white artist?), Edward A. Harleston, Palmer Hayden, Felrath Hines, Al Hollingsworth, Sargent C. Johnson, William H. Johnson, Ben Jones, Henry B. Jones, Lois Mailou Jones, Larry Lewis, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Edward L. Loper, Leon Meeks, Archibald Motley, Marion Perkins, James A. Porter, Elizabeth Prophet, William Edouard Scott, Charles Sebree, Thelma Johnson Streat, James L. Wells, Jack White and John Wilson. Scipio Moorhead and Malcolm Bailey mentioned in passing. Large stout 4to, cloth. (First revised enlarged edition. (Previously pub. as Negro Almanac).

PLOSKI, HARRY A., ed.
The Negro Almanac: A Reference Work on the Afro-American.
New York: A Wiley-Interscience Publication, 1983.
1550 pp. Includes essay on The Black Artist. Gylbert Coker cited as art consultant. Many misspellings. Artists mentioned include: Scipio Moorhead, James Porter, Eugene Warburg, Robert Duncanson, William H. Simpson, Edward M. Bannister, Joshua Johnston, Robert Douglass, David Bowser, Edmonia Lewis, Henry O. Tanner, William Harper, Dorothy Fannin, Meta Fuller, Archibald Motley, Palmer Hayden. Malvin Gray Johnson, Laura Waring, William E. Scott, Hughie Lee-Smith, Zell Ingram, Charles Sallee, Elmer Brown, William E. Smith, George Hulsinger, James Herring, Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage, Charles Alston, Hale Woodruff, Charles White, Richmond Barthé, Malvin Gray Johnson, Henry Bannarn, Florence Purviance, Dox Thrash, Robert Blackburn, James Denmark, Dindga McCannon, Frank Wimberly, Ann Tanksley, Don Robertson, Lloyd Toones, Lois Jones, Jo Butler, Robert Threadgill, Faith Ringgold, Romare Bearden, Ernest Crichlow, Norman Lewis, Jimmy Mosley, Samella Lewis, F. L. Spellmon, Phillip Hampton, Venola Seals Jennings, Juanita Moulon, Eugene Jesse Brown, Hayward Oubré, Ademola Olugebefola, Otto Neals, Kay Brown, Jean Taylor, Genesis II, David Hammons, Senga Nengudi, Randy Williams, Howardena Pindell, Edward Spriggs, Beauford Delaney, James Vanderzee, Melvin Edwards, Vincent Smith, Alonzo Davis, Dale Davis, Margaret Burroughs, Elizabeth Catlett, Gordon Parks, Rex Goreleigh, William McBride, Jr., Eldzier Cortor, James Gittens, Joan Maynard. Kynaston McShine, Coker, Cheryl McClenney, Faith Weaver, Randy Williams, Florence Hardney, Dolores Wright, Cathy Chance, Lowery Sims, Richard Hunt, Roland Ayers, Frank Bowling, Marvin Brown, Walter Cade, Catti, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Manuel Hughes, Barkley Hendricks, Juan Logan, Alvin Loving, Tom Lloyd, Lloyd McNeill, Algernon Miller, Norma Morgan, Mavis Pusey, Betye Saar, Raymond Saunders, Thomas Sills, Thelma Johnson Streat, Alma Thomas, John Torres, Todd Williams, Mahler Ryder, Minnie Evans, Jacob Lawrence, Haywood Rivers, Edward Clark, Camille Billops, Joe Overstreet, Louise Parks, Herbert Gentry, William Edmondson, James Parks, Marion Perkins, Bernard Goss, Reginald Gammon, Emma Amos, Charles Alston, Richard Mayhew, Al Hollingsworth, Calvin Douglass, Merton Simpson, Earl Miller, Felrath Hines, Perry Ferguson, William Majors, James Yeargans. Ruth Waddy; Evangeline Montgomery, Jeff Donaldson, Wadsworth Jarrell, Gerald Williams, Carolyn Lawrence, Barbara Jones-Hogu, Frank Smith, Howard Mallory, Napoleon Jones-Henderson, Nelson Stevens, Vivian Browne, Kay Brown, William Harper, Isaac Hathaway, Julien Hudson, May Howard Jackson, Edmonia Lewis, Patrick Reason, William Simpson, A. B. Wilson, William Braxton, Allan Crite, Alice Gafford, Sargent Johnson, William H. Johnson, William Artis, John Biggers, William Carter, Joseph Delaney, Elton Fax, Frederick Flemister, Ronald Joseph, Horace Pippin, Charles Sebree, Bill Traylor, Ellis Wilson, John Wilson, Starmanda Bullock, Dana Chandler, Raven Chanticleer, Roy DeCarava, John Dowell, Sam Gilliam, David Hammons, Daniel Johnson, Geraldine McCullough, Earl Miller, Clarence Morgan, Norma Morgan, Skunder Boghossian, Bob Thompson, Clifton Webb, Jack Whitten. 4to, cloth. 4th ed.

PROVIDENCE (RI). Museum of Art, Rhode Island School of Design.
Contemporary Black Artists.
July 1-31, 1969.
Unpag. (40 pp.), 33 b&w illus., checklist of 52 works, brief biogs., exhibs., colls., and exhib. checklist for each of the 34 artists. Introductions by Nina Kaiden Wright and Caroline S. Lerner. Includes: Emma Amos, Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, Betty Blayton, Peter A. Bradley, George C. Carter, Floyd Coleman, Emilio Cruz, James Denmark, Avel DeKnight, Melvin Edwards, Reginald Gammon, Sam Gilliam, Robert Gordon, Marvin Harden, Felrath Hines, Al Hollingsworth, Richard Hunt, Cliff Joseph, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Norman Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Richard Mayhew, Earl Miller, Robert Reid, Mahler B. Ryder, Betye Saar, Ray Saunders, Thomas Albert Sills, Russ Thompson, Lloyd Toone, Jack White, Ed Wilson. [A traveling exhibition that was very similar to the traveling show entitled 30 Contemporary Black Artists, 1968-69, with several artists omitted and approx. six artists added.) [Review: Alvin Hollingsworth, \"Wealth of Expression in Black Artists\", Rhode Island School of Design exhibition, Providence Sunday Journal, June 29, 1969.] 4to (11 x 8.5 in.), stapled black wraps, white lettering front and back covers. First ed.

RIGGS, THOMAS, ed.
St. James Guide to Black Artists.
Detroit: St. James Press, 1997.
xxiv, 625 pp., illus. A highly selective reference work listing only approximately 400 artists of African descent worldwide (including around 300 African American artists, approximately 20% women artists.) Illus. of work or photos of many artists, brief descriptive texts by well-known scholars, with selected list of exhibitions for each, plus many artists\' statements. A noticeable absence of many artists under 45, most photographers, and many women artists. Far fewer artists listed here than in Igoe, Cederholm, or other sources. Stout 4to (29 cm.), laminated yellow papered boards. First ed.

ROBERTSON, JACK.
Twentieth-Century Artists on Art. An Index to Artists\' Writings, Statements, and Interviews.
Boston: G.K. Hall & Co., 1985.
Useful reference work; includes numerous African American artists: Ron Adams, Charles Alston, Charlotte Amevor, Benny Andrews, Dorothy Atkins, Casper Banjo, Ellen Banks, Romare Bearden, Ed Bereal, Arthur Berry, John Biggers, Betty Blayton, Gloria Bohanon, Shirley Bolton, David Bradford, Arthur Britt, Frederick Brown, Kay Brown, Winifred Brown, Vivian Browne, Calvin Burnett, Margaret Burroughs, Cecil Burton, Sheryle Butler, Carole Byard, Arthur Carraway, Bernie Casey, Yvonne Catchings, Mitchell Caton, Elizabeth Catlett, Dana Chandler, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Claude Clark Jr., Irene Clark, Donald Coles, Robert Colescott, Dan Concholar, Eldzier Cortor, Marva Cremer, Doris Crudup, Dewey Crumpler, Emilio Cruz, Samuel Curtis, William Curtis, Alonzo Davis, Bing Davis, Dale Davis, Roy DeCarava, Beauford Delaney, Brooks Dendy, Murry DePillars, Robert D\'Hue, Kenneth Dickerson, Leo Dillon, Aaron Douglas, Emory Douglas, David Driskell, Eugenia Dunn, Annette Ensley, Eugene Eda, Melvin Edwards, Marion Epting, Minnie Evans, Frederick Eversley, Tom Feelings, Mikele Fletcher, Moses O. Fowowe, Miriam Francis, Ibibio Fundi, Alice Gafford, West Gale, Joseph Geran, Sam Gilliam, Robert Glover, Wilhelmina Godfrey, Rex Goreleigh, Robert H. Green, Donald O. Greene, Ron Griffin, Eugene Grigsby. Horathel Hall, Wes Hall, David Hammons, Philip Hampton, Marvin Harden, John T. Harris, William Harris, Kitty Hayden, Ben Hazard, Napoleon Jones-Henderson (as Henderson), William H. Henderson, Ernest Herbert, Leon Hicks, Candace Hill-Montgomery, Alfred Hinton, Al Hollingswoth, Earl Hooks, Raymond Howell, Margo Humphrey, Richard Hunt, Bill Hutson, Suzanne Jackson, Walter Jackson, Rosalind Jeffries, Marie Johnson, Ben Jones, Laura Jones, Lois Mailou Jones, Jack Jordan, Cliff Joseph, Gwendolyn Knight, Larry Compton Kolawole, Raymond Lark, Jacob Lawrence, Flora Lewis, James E. Lewis, Norman Lewis, Samella Lewis, Tom Lloyd, Juan Logan, Willie Longshore, Ed Love, Al Loving, Philip Mason, Richard Mayhew, Valerie Maynard, Karl McIntosh, William McNeil, Yvonne Meo, Sam Middleton, Onnie Millar, Eva H. Miller, Sylvia Miller, Lev Mills, James Mitchell, Arthur Monroe, Evangeline Montgomery, Ron Moore, Norma Morgan, Jimmie Mosely, Otto Neals, Trudell Obey, Kermit Oliver, Haywood Oubré, John Outterbridge, Lorenzo Pace, William Pajaud, Denise Palm, James Parks, Angela Perkins, Howardena Pindell, Elliott Pinkney, Adrian Piper, Horace Pippin, Leslie Price, Noah Purifoy, Martin Puryear, Roscoe Reddix, Jerry Reed, Robert G. Reid, William Reid, John Rhoden, Gary Rickson, John Riddle, Faith Ringgold, Haywood Rivers, Lethia Robertson, Brenda Rogers, Charles D. Rogers, Bernard Rollins, Arthur Rose, John Russell, Betye Saar, Raymond Saunders, Charles Shelton, Thomas Sills, Jewel Simon, Merton Simpson, Van Slater, Alfred James Smith, Arenzo Smith, Arthur Smith, Damballah Smith, George Smith, Howard Smith. Greg Sparks, Sharon Spencer, Nelson Stevens, James Tanner, Della Taylor, Rod Taylor, Evelyn Terry, Alma Thomas, James \"Son Ford\" Thomas, Bob Thompson. John Torres, Elaine Towns, Curtis Tucker, Yvonne Tucker, Charlene Tull, Leo Twiggs, Alfred Tyler, Anna Tyler, Bernard Upshur, Florestee Vance, Royce Vaughn, Ruth Waddy, Larry Walker, William Walker, Bobby Walls, Carole Ward, Pecolia Warner, Mary Washington, James Watkins, Roland Welton, Amos White, Charles White, Tim Whiten, Acquaetta Williams, Chester Williams, Daniel Williams, Laura Williams, William T. Williams, Luster Willis, Fred Wilson, John Wilson, Stanley Wilson, Bernard Wright, Richard Wyatt, Bernard Young, Charles Young, Milton Young. 4to, cloth.

ROELOF-LANNER, T.V., ed. and RUTH G. WADDY.
Prints by American Negro Artists.
Los Angeles: Cultural Exchange Center, 1965.
Unpag. (ii, 112 pp.), 51 full page illus. in color and b&w, beautifully printed on recto only. Biogs. of most artists. Foreword by Rosemarie Von Studnitz; texts by James A. Porter, Ruth G. Waddy. Pictorial endpapers and title page illus. by Brumsic Brandon Jr. The 51 artists in the first edition included: Emma Amos, Ralph Arnold, Brumsic Brandon, Jr., Calvin Burnett, Margaret Burroughs, Joyce Cadoo, Mel Carey, Yvonne Carter, Eugene Cheltenham, Floyd Coleman, Wm. Lawrence Compton, Eugenia Dunn, Charles Ferguson, Robert Glover, Hugh Harrell, Scotland Harris, Eugene Hawkins, Leroy Henderson, Leon Hicks, Alvin Hollingsworth, Richard Hunt, Wilmer James, Jack Jordan, Richard Kinney, Anderson Macklin, Geraldine McCullough, James McNeil, William McNeil, Yvonne Meo, Norma Morgan, Jimmie Lee Mosely, Alvin Pope, Mavis Pusey, Don Pyburn, John Riddle, Charles D. Rogers, Betye Saar, Ernest Satchell, Jewel W. Simon, Van Slater, Frank E. Smith, William E. Smith, Sylvia Snowden, Laura Soares, Ruth G. Waddy, James Lesesne Wells, Fred R. Wilson, John Wilson, William T. Williams, Charles Yates, and Heartwell Yeargans. [NOTE: The second expanded edition of 1967 contained 60 artists, adding images by: John T. Biggers, Sylvester Britton, David C. Driskell, Marion Epting, Milton Derr (as Johnson), Michael K. Perry, Harper T. Phillips, Sue Smock and David F. Stephens.] 4to (31 cm.), cloth, printed green and white paper labels on spine and front cover, d.j.

SCOTT, THOMAS J., ed.
Greater New York Art Directory.
New York: Center for Urban Education, 1968.
Includes: Charles Alston, Benny Andrews, Eldzier Cortor, Al Hollingsworth, Hughie Lee-Smith, Norman Lewis, Faith Ringgold, Betty Blayton Taylor, Hale Woodruff, Vivian E. Browne, Jacob Lawrence, Richard Mayhew, John Rhoden. 8vo, wraps.

SIEGEL, JEANNE.
Why Spiral?.
1966.
In: ARTnews 65.5 (September 1966):48-51, 67, 68, 12 illus. Timely interview with this historic New York group of artists; comments by artists, commentary by author. Includes: Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Romare Bearden, Calvin Douglass, Perry Ferguson, Reginald Gammon, Felrath Hines, Al Hollingsworth, Norman Lewis, William Majors, Earl Miller, Merton Simpson, Hale Woodruff, James Yeargans. 4to, wraps.

SPRADLING, MARY MACE.
In Black and White: Afro-Americans in Print.
Kalamazoo: Kalamazoo Public Library, 1980.
2 vols. 1089 pp. Includes: John H. Adams, Ron Adams, Alonzo Aden, Muhammad Ali, Baba Alabi Alinya, Charles Alston, Charlotte Amevor, Benny Andrews, Ralph Arnold, William Artis, Ellsworth Ausby, Jacqueline Ayer, Calvin Bailey, Jene Ballentine, Casper Banjo, Henry Bannarn, Edward Bannister, Dutreuil Barjon, Ernie Barnes, Carolyn Plaskett Barrow, Richmond Barthé, Beatrice Bassette, Ad Bates, Romare Bearden, Phoebe Beasley, Roberta Bell, Cleveland Bellow, Ed Bereal, Arthur Berry, DeVoice Berry, Cynthia Bethune, Charles Bible, John Biggers, Camille Billops, Bob Blackburn, Irving Blaney, Bessie Blount, Gloria Bohanon, Leslie Bolling, Shirley Bolton, Charles Bonner, Michael Borders, John Borican, Earl Bostic, Augustus Bowen, David Bowser, David Bradford, Edward Brandford, Brumsic Brandon, William Braxton, Arthur Britt Sr., Benjamin Britt, Sylvester Britton, Elmer Brown, Fred Brown, Kay Brown, Margery Brown, Richard L. Brown, Samuel Brown, Vivian E. Browne, Henry Brownlee, Linda Bryant, Starmanda Bullock, Juana Burke, Selma Burke, Eugene Burkes, Viola Burley, Calvin Burnett, John Burr, Margaret Burroughs, Nathaniel Bustion, Sheryle Butler, Elmer Simms Campbell, Thomas Cannon, Nick Canyon, Edward Carr, Art Carraway, Ted Carroll, Joseph S. Carter, William Carter, Catti, George Washington Carver, Yvonne Catchings, Elizabeth Catlett, Mitchell Caton, Dana Chandler, Kitty Chavis, George Clack, Claude Clark, Ed Clark, J. Henrik Clarke, Leroy Clarke, Ladybird Cleveland, Floyd Coleman, Donald Coles, Margaret Collins, Paul Collins, Sam Collins, Dan Concholar, Arthur Coppedge, Wallace X. Conway, Leonard Cooper, William A. Cooper, Art Coppedge, Eldzier Cortor, Samuel Countee, Harold Cousins, William Craft, Cleo Crawford, Marva Cremer, Ernest Crichlow, Allan Crite, Jerrolyn Crooks, Harvey Cropper, Doris Crudup, Robert Crump, Dewey Crumpler, Frank E. Cummings, William Curtis, Mary Reed Daniel, Alonzo Davis, Charles Davis, Willis \"Bing\" Davis, Dale Davis, Charles C. Dawson, Juette Day, Thomas Day, Roy DeCarava, Paul DeCroom, Avel DeKnight, Beauford Delaney, Joseph Delaney, Richard Dempsey, Murry DePillars, Robert D\'Hue, Kenneth Dickerson, Leo Dillon, Raymond Dobard, Vernon Dobard, Jeff Donaldson, Aaron Douglas, Emory Douglas, Robert Douglass, Glanton Dowdell, David Driskell, Yolande Du Bois, Robert Duncanson, Eugenia Dunn, John Dunn, Adolphus Ealey, Eugene Eda, Melvin Edwards, Gaye Elliington, Annette Ensley, Marion Epting, Minnie Evans, Frederick Eversley, James Fairfax, Kenneth Falana, Allen Fannin, John Farrar, William Farrow, Elton Fax, Muriel Feelings, Tom Feelings, Frederick Flemister, Mikelle Fletcher, Curt Flood, Thomas Floyd, Doyle Foreman, Mozelle Forte (costume and fabric designer), Amos Fortune, Mrs. C.R. Foster, Inez Fourcard (as Fourchard), John Francis, Miriam Francis, Allan Freelon, Meta Warrick Fuller, Stephany Fuller, Gale Fulton-Ross, Ibibio Fundi, Alice Gafford, Otis Galbreath, West Gale, Reginald Gammon, Jim Gary, Herbert Gentry, Joseph Geran, Jimmy Gibbez, Sam Gilliam, Robert Glover, Manuel Gomez, Russell Gordon, Rex Goreleigh, Bernard Goss, Samuel Green, William Green, Donald Greene, Joseph Grey, Ron Griffin, Eugene Grigsby, Henry Gudgell, Charles Haines, Clifford Hall, Horathel Hall, Wesley Hall, David Hammons, James Hampton, Phillip Hampton, Lorraine Hansberry, Marvin Harden, Arthur Hardie, Inge Hardison, John Hardrick, Edwin Harleston, William A. Harper, Gilbert Harris, John Harris, Maren Hassinger, Isaac Hathaway, Frank Hayden, Kitty Hayden, Palmer Hayden, Vertis Hayes, Wilbur Haynie, Dion Henderson, Ernest Herbert, Leon Hicks, Hector Hill, Tony Hill, Geoffrey Holder, Al Hollingsworth, Varnette Honeywood, Earl Hooks, Humbert Howard, James Howard, Raymond Howell, Julien Hudson, Manuel Hughes, Margo Humphrey, Thomas Hunster, Richard Hunt, Clementine Hunter, Norman Hunter, Orville Hurt, Bill Hutson, Nell Ingram, Tanya Izanhour, Ambrose Jackson, Earl Jackson, May Jackson, Nigel Jackson, Suzanne Jackson, Walter Jackson, Louise Jefferson, Ted Joans, Daniel Johnson, Lester L. Johnson, Jr., Malvin Gray Johnson, Marie Johnson, Sargent Johnson, William H. Johnson, Joshua Johnston, Barbara Jones, Ben Jones, Calvin Jones, Frederick D. Jones Jr., James Arlington Jones, Lawrence Jones, Lois Mailou Jones, Eddie Jack Jordan, Ronald Joseph, Lemuel Joyner, Paul Keene, Elyse J. Kennart, Joseph Kersey, Gwendolyn Knight, Lawrence Compton Kolawole, Oliver LaGrone, Artis Lane, Doyle Lane, Raymond Lark, Lewis H. Latimer, Jacob Lawrence, Clarence Lawson, Bertina Lee, Joanna Lee, Peter Lee, Hughie Lee-Smith, Leon Leonard, Curtis Lewis, Edmonia Lewis, James Edward Lewis, Norman Lewis, Samella Lewis, Charles Lilly, Henri Linton, Jules Lion, Romeyn Lippman, Tom Lloyd, Jon Lockard, Juan Logan, Willie Longshore, Ed Loper, Ed Love, Al Loving, Geraldine McCullough, Lawrence McGaugh, Charles McGee, Donald McIlvaine, James McMillan, William McNeil, Lloyd McNeill, David Mann, William Marshall, Helen Mason, Philip Mason, Winifred Mason, Calvin Massey, Lester (Nathan) Mathews, William Maxwell, Richard Mayhew, Valerie Maynard, Yvonne Meo, Sam Middleton, Onnie Millar, Aaron Miller, Eva Miller, Lev Mills, P\'lla Mills, Evangeline J. Montgomery, Arthur Monroe, Frank Moore, Ron Moore, Scipio Moorhead, Norma Morgan, Ken Morris, Calvin Morrison, Jimmie Mosely, Leo Moss, Lottie Moss, Archibald Motley, Hugh Mulzac, Frank Neal, George Neal, Otto Neals, Shirley Nero, Effie Newsome, Nommo, George Norman, Georg Olden, Ademola Olugebefola, Conora O\'Neal (fashion designer), Cora O\'Neal, Lula O\'Neal, Pearl O\'Neal, Ron O\'Neal, Hayward Oubré, John Outterbridge, Carl Owens, Lorenzo Pace, Alvin Paige, Robert Paige, William Pajaud, Denise Palm, Norman Parish, Jules Parker, James Parks, Edgar Patience, Angela Perkins, Marion Perkins, Michael Perry, Jacqueline Peters, Douglas Phillips, Harper Phillips, Delilah Pierce, Howardena Pindell, Horace Pippin, Julie Ponceau, James Porter, Leslie Price, Ramon Price, Nelson Primus, Nancy Prophet, Noah Purifoy, Teodoro Ramos Blanco y Penita, Otis Rathel, Patrick Reason, William Reid, John Rhoden, Barbara Chase-Riboud, William Richmond, Percy Ricks, Gary Rickson, John Riddle, Gregory Ridley, Faith Ringgold, Malkia Roberts, Brenda Rogers, Charles Rogers, George Rogers, Arthur Rose, Nancy Rowland, Winfred Russell, Mahler Ryder, Betye Saar, Charles Sallee, Marion Sampler, John Sanders, Walter Sanford, Raymond Saunders, Augusta Savage, William E. Scott, Charles Sebree, Thomas Sills, Carroll Simms, Jewel Simon, Walter Simon, Merton Simpson, William H. Simpson, Louis Slaughter, Gwen Small, Albert A. Smith, Alvin Smith, Hughie Lee-Smith, John Henry Smith, Jacob Lawrence, John Steptoe, Nelson Stevens, Edward Stidum, Elmer C. Stoner, Lou Stovall, Henry O. Tanner, Ralph Tate, Betty Blayton Taylor, Della Taylor, Bernita Temple, Herbert Temple, Alma Thomas, Elaine Thomas, Larry Thomas, Carolyn Thompson, Lovett Thompson, Mildred Thompson, Mozelle Thompson, Robert (Bob) Thompson, Dox Thrash, Neptune Thurston, John Torres, Nat Turner, Leo Twiggs, Bernard Upshur, Royce Vaughn, Ruth Waddy, Anthony Walker, Earl Walker, Larry Walker, William Walker, Daniel Warburg, Eugene Warburg, Carole Ward, Laura Waring, Mary P. Washington, James Watkins, Lawrence Watson, Edward Webster, Allen A. Weeks, Robert Weil, James Wells, Pheoris West, Sarah West, John Weston, Delores Wharton, Amos White, Charles White, Garrett Whyte, Alfredus Williams, Chester Williams, Douglas R. Williams, Laura Williams, Matthew Williams, Morris Williams, Peter Williams, Rosetta Williams (as Rosita), Walter Williams, William T. Williams, Ed Wilson, Ellis Wilson, Fred Wilson, John Wilson, Stanley Wilson, Vincent Wilson, Hale Woodruff, Bernard Wright, Charles Young, Kenneth Young, Milton Young. [Note the 3rd edition consists of two volumes published by Gale Research in 1980, with a third supplemental volume issued in 1985.] Large stout 4tos, red cloth. 3rd revised expanded edition.

ST LOUIS (MO). St. Louis Public Library.
An index to Black American artists.
St. Louis: St. Louis Public Library, 1972.
50 pp. Also includes art historians such as Henri Ghent. In this database, only artists are cross-referenced. 4to (28 cm.)

STATEN ISLAND (NY). Staten Island Museum.
Coalition 70.
March 8-April 19, 1970.
Exhib. cat. Text by Barry Lee Delaney. Includes: Al Hollingsworth, Betty Blayton Taylor, Romare Bearden, Norman Lewis, Richard Mayhew, Reginald Gammon, Kirby DuVillier. 8vo, wraps.

THOMISON, DENNIS.
The Black Artist in America: An Index to Reproductions.
Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1991.
Includes: index to Black artists, bibliography (including doctoral dissertations and audiovisual materials.) Many of the dozens of spelling errors and incomplete names have been corrected in this entry and names of known white artists omitted from our entry, but errors may still exist in this entry, so beware: Jesse Aaron, Charles Abramson, Maria Adair, Lauren Adam, Ovid P. Adams, Ron Adams, Terry Adkins, (Jonathan) Ta Coumba T. Aiken, Jacques Akins, Lawrence E. Alexander, Tina Allen, Pauline Alley-Barnes, Charles Alston, Frank Alston, Charlotte Amevor, Emma Amos (Levine), Allie Anderson, Benny Andrews, Edmund Minor Archer, Pastor Argudin y Pedroso [as Y. Pedroso Argudin], Anna Arnold, Ralph Arnold, William Artis, Kwasi Seitu Asante [as Kwai Seitu Asantey], Steve Ashby, Rose Auld, Ellsworth Ausby, Henry Avery, Charles Axt, Roland Ayers, Annabelle Bacot, Calvin Bailey, Herman Kofi Bailey, Malcolm Bailey, Annabelle Baker, E. Loretta Ballard, Jene Ballentine, Casper Banjo, Bill Banks, Ellen Banks, John W. Banks, Henry Bannarn, Edward Bannister, Curtis R. Barnes, Ernie Barnes, James MacDonald Barnsley, Richmond Barthé, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Daniel Carter Beard, Romare Bearden, Phoebe Beasley, Falcon Beazer, Arthello Beck, Sherman Beck, Cleveland Bellow, Gwendolyn Bennett, Herbert Bennett, Ed Bereal, Arthur Berry, Devoice Berry, Ben Bey, John Biggers, Camille Billops, Willie Birch, Eloise Bishop, Robert Blackburn, Tarleton Blackwell, Lamont K. Bland, Betty Blayton, Gloria Bohanon, Hawkins Bolden, Leslie Bolling, Shirley Bolton, Higgins Bond, Erma Booker, Michael Borders, Ronald Boutte, Siras Bowens, Lynn Bowers, Frank Bowling, David Bustill Bowser, David Patterson Boyd, David Bradford, Harold Bradford, Peter Bradley, Fred Bragg, Winston Branch, Brumsic Brandon, James Brantley, William Braxton, Bruce Brice, Arthur Britt, James Britton, Sylvester Britton, Moe Brooker, Bernard Brooks, Mable Brooks, Oraston Brooks-el, David Scott Brown, Elmer Brown, Fred Brown, Frederick Brown, Grafton Brown, James Andrew Brown, Joshua Brown, Kay Brown, Marvin Brown, Richard Brown, Samuel Brown, Vivian Browne, Henry Brownlee, Beverly Buchanan, Selma Burke, Arlene Burke-Morgan, Calvin Burnett, Margaret Burroughs, Cecil Burton, Charles Burwell, Nathaniel Bustion, David Butler, Carole Byard, Albert Byrd, Walter Cade, Joyce Cadoo, Bernard Cameron, Simms Campbell, Frederick Campbell, Thomas Cannon (as Canon), Nicholas Canyon, John Carlis, Arthur Carraway, Albert Carter, Allen Carter, George Carter, Grant Carter, Ivy Carter, Keithen Carter, Robert Carter, William Carter, Yvonne Carter, George Washington Carver, Bernard Casey, Yvonne Catchings, Elizabeth Catlett, Frances Catlett, Mitchell Caton, Catti, Charlotte Chambless, Dana Chandler, John Chandler, Robin Chandler, Barbara Chase-Riboud, Kitty Chavis, Edward Christmas, Petra Cintron, George Clack, Claude Clark Sr., Claude Lockhart Clark, Edward Clark, Irene Clark, LeRoy Clarke, Pauline Clay, Denise Cobb, Gylbert Coker, Marion Elizabeth Cole, Archie Coleman, Floyd Coleman, Donald Coles, Robert Colescott, Carolyn Collins, Paul Collins, Richard Collins, Samuel Collins, Don Concholar, Wallace Conway, Houston Conwill, William A. Cooper, Arthur Coppedge, Jean Cornwell, Eldzier Cortor, Samuel Countee, Harold Cousins, Cleo Crawford, Marva Cremer, Ernest Crichlow, Norma Criss, Allan Rohan Crite, Harvey Cropper, Geraldine Crossland, Rushie Croxton, Doris Crudup, Dewey Crumpler, Emilio Cruz, Charles Cullen (White artist), Vince Cullers, Michael Cummings, Urania Cummings, DeVon Cunningham, Samuel Curtis, William Curtis, Artis Dameron, Mary Reed Daniel, Aaron Darling, Alonzo Davis, Bing Davis, Charles Davis, Dale Davis, Rachel Davis, Theresa Davis, Ulysses Davis, Walter Lewis Davis, Charles C. Davis, William Dawson, Juette Day, Roy DeCarava, Avel DeKnight, Beauford Delaney, Joseph Delaney, Nadine Delawrence, Louis Delsarte, Richard Dempsey, J. Brooks Dendy, III (as Brooks Dendy), James Denmark, Murry DePillars, Joseph DeVillis, Robert D\'Hue, Kenneth Dickerson, Voris Dickerson, Charles Dickson, Frank Dillon, Leo Dillon, Robert Dilworth, James Donaldson, Jeff Donaldson, Lillian Dorsey, William Dorsey, Aaron Douglas, Emory Douglas, Calvin Douglass, Glanton Dowdell, John Dowell, Sam Doyle, David Driskell, Ulric S. Dunbar, Robert Duncanson, Eugenia Dunn, John Morris Dunn, Edward Dwight, Adolphus Ealey, Lawrence Edelin, William Edmondson, Anthony Edwards, Melvin Edwards, Eugene Eda [as Edy], John Elder, Maurice Ellison, Walter Ellison, Mae Engron, Annette Easley, Marion Epting, Melvyn Ettrick (as Melvin), Clifford Eubanks, Minnie Evans, Darrell Evers, Frederick Eversley, Cyril Fabio, James Fairfax, Kenneth Falana, Josephus Farmer, John Farrar, William Farrow, Malaika Favorite, Elton Fax, Tom Feelings, Claude Ferguson, Violet Fields, Lawrence Fisher, Thomas Flanagan, Walter Flax, Frederick Flemister, Mikelle Fletcher, Curt Flood, Batunde Folayemi, George Ford, Doyle Foreman, Leroy Foster, Walker Foster, John Francis, Richard Franklin, Ernest Frazier, Allan Freelon, Gloria Freeman, Pam Friday, John Fudge, Meta Fuller, Ibibio Fundi, Ramon Gabriel, Alice Gafford, West Gale, George Gamble, Reginald Gammon, Christine Gant, Jim Gary, Adolphus Garrett, Leroy Gaskin, Lamerol A. Gatewood, Herbert Gentry, Joseph Geran, Ezekiel Gibbs, William Giles, Sam Gilliam, Robert Glover, William Golding, Paul Goodnight, Erma Gordon, L. T. Gordon, Robert Gordon, Russell Gordon, Rex Goreleigh, Bernard Goss, Joe Grant, Oscar Graves, Todd Gray, Annabelle Green, James Green, Jonathan Green, Robert Green, Donald Greene, Michael Greene, Joseph Grey, Charles Ron Griffin, Eugene Grigsby, Raymond Grist, Michael Gude, Ethel Guest, John Hailstalk, Charles Haines, Horathel Hall, Karl Hall, Wesley Hall, Edward Hamilton, Eva Hamlin-Miller, David Hammons, James Hampton, Phillip Hampton, Marvin Harden, Inge Hardison, John Hardrick, Edwin Harleston, William Harper, Hugh Harrell, Oliver Harrington, Gilbert Harris, Hollon Harris, John Harris, Scotland J. B. Harris, Warren Harris, Bessie Harvey, Maren Hassinger, Cynthia Hawkins (as Thelma), William Hawkins, Frank Hayden, Kitty Hayden, Palmer Hayden, William Hayden, Vertis Hayes, Anthony Haynes, Wilbur Haynie, Benjamin Hazard, June Hector, Dion Henderson, Napoleon Jones-Henderson, William Henderson, Barkley Hendricks, Gregory A. Henry, Robert Henry, Ernest Herbert, James Herring, Mark Hewitt, Leon Hicks, Renalda Higgins, Hector Hill, Felrath Hines, Alfred Hinton, Tim Hinton, Adrienne Hoard, Irwin Hoffman, Raymond Holbert, Geoffrey Holder, Robin Holder, Lonnie Holley, Alvin Hollingsworth, Eddie Holmes, Varnette Honeywood, Earl J. Hooks, Ray Horner, Paul Houzell, Helena Howard, Humbert Howard, John Howard, Mildred Howard, Raymond Howell, William Howell, Calvin Hubbard, Henry Hudson, Julien Hudson, James Huff, Manuel Hughes, Margo Humphrey, Raymond Hunt, Richard Hunt, Clementine Hunter, Elliott Hunter, Arnold Hurley, Bill Hutson, Zell Ingram, Sue Irons, A. B. Jackson, Gerald Jackson, Harlan Jackson, Hiram Jackson, May Jackson, Oliver Jackson, Robert Jackson, Suzanne Jackson, Walter Jackson, Martha Jackson-Jarvis, Bob James, Wadsworth Jarrell, Jasmin Joseph [as Joseph Jasmin], Archie Jefferson, Rosalind Jeffries, Noah Jemison, Barbara Fudge Jenkins, Florian Jenkins, Chester Jennings, Venola Jennings, Wilmer Jennings, Georgia Jessup, Johana, Daniel Johnson, Edith Johnson, Harvey Johnson, Herbert Johnson, Jeanne Johnson, Malvin Gray Johnson, Marie Johnson-Calloway, Milton Derr (as Milton Johnson), Sargent Johnson, William H. Johnson, Joshua Johnston, Ben Jones, Calvin Jones, Dorcas Jones, Frank A. Jones, Frederick D. Jones, Jr. (as Frederic Jones), Henry B. Jones, Johnny Jones, Lawrence Arthur Jones, Leon Jones, Lois Mailou Jones, Nathan Jones, Tonnie Jones, Napoleon Jones-Henderson, Barbara Jones-Hogu, Jack Jordan, Cliff Joseph, Ronald Joseph, Lemuel Joyner, Edward Judie, Michael Kabu, Arthur Kaufman, Charles Keck, Paul Keene, John Kendrick, Harriet Kennedy, Leon Kennedy, Joseph Kersey; Virginia Kiah, Henri King, James King, Gwendolyn Knight, Robert Knight, Lawrence Kolawole, Brenda Lacy, (Laura) Jean Lacy, Roy LaGrone, Artis Lane, Doyle Lane, Raymond Lark, Carolyn Lawrence, Jacob Lawrence, James Lawrence, Clarence Lawson, Louis LeBlanc, James Lee, Hughie Lee-Smith, Lizetta LeFalle-Collins, Leon Leonard, Bruce LeVert, Edmonia Lewis, Edwin E. Lewis, Flora Lewis, James E. Lewis, Norman Lewis, Roy Lewis, Samella Lewis, Elba Lightfoot, Charles Lilly [as Lily], Arturo Lindsay, Henry Linton, Jules Lion, James Little, Marcia Lloyd, Tom Lloyd, Jon Lockard, Donald Locke, Lionel Lofton, Juan Logan, Bert Long, Willie Longshore, Edward Loper, Francisco Lord, Jesse Lott, Edward Love, Nina Lovelace, Whitfield Lovell, Alvin Loving, Ramon Loy, William Luckett, John Lutz, Don McAllister, Theadius McCall, Dindga McCannon, Edward McCluney, Jesse McCowan, Sam McCrary, Geraldine McCullough, Lawrence McGaugh, Charles McGee, Donald McIlvaine, Karl McIntosh, Joseph Mack, Edward McKay, Thomas McKinney, Alexander McMath, Robert McMillon, William McNeil, Lloyd McNeill, Clarence Major, William Majors, David Mann, Ulysses Marshall, Phillip Lindsay Mason, Lester Mathews, Sharon Matthews, William (Bill) Maxwell, Gordon Mayes, Marietta Mayes, Richard Mayhew, Valerie Maynard, Victoria Meek, Leon Meeks, Yvonne Meo, Helga Meyer, Gaston Micheaux, Charles Mickens, Samuel Middleton, Onnie Millar, Aaron Miller, Algernon Miller, Don Miller, Earl Miller, Eva Hamlin Miller, Guy Miller, Julia Miller, Charles Milles, Armsted Mills, Edward Mills, Lev Mills, Priscilla Mills (P\'lla), Carol Mitchell, Corinne Mitchell, Tyrone Mitchell, Arthur Monroe, Elizabeth Montgomery, Ronald Moody, Ted Moody, Frank Moore, Ron Moore, Sabra Moore, Theophilus Moore, William Moore, Leedell Moorehead, Scipio Moorhead, Clarence Morgan, Norma Morgan, Sister Gertrude Morgan, Patricia Morris, Keith Morrison, Lee Jack Morton, Jimmie Mosely, David Mosley, Lottie Moss, Archibald Motley, Hugh Mulzac, Betty Murchison, J. B. Murry, Teixera Nash, Inez Nathaniel, Frank Neal, George Neal, Jerome Neal, Robert Neal, Otto Neals, Robert Newsome, James Newton, Rochelle Nicholas, John Nichols, Isaac Nommo, Oliver Nowlin, Trudell Obey, Constance Okwumabua, Osira Olatunde, Kermit Oliver, Yaounde Olu, Ademola Olugebefola, Mary O\'Neal, Haywood Oubré, Simon Outlaw, John Outterbridge, Joseph Overstreet, Carl Owens, Winnie Owens-Hart, Lorenzo Pace, William Pajaud, Denise Palm, James Pappas, Christopher Parks, James Parks, Louise Parks, Vera Parks, Oliver Parson, James Pate, Edgar Patience, John Payne, Leslie Payne, Sandra Peck, Alberto Pena, Angela Perkins, Marion Perkins, Michael Perry, Bertrand Phillips, Charles James Phillips, Harper Phillips, Ted Phillips, Delilah Pierce, Elijah Pierce, Harold Pierce, Anderson Pigatt, Stanley Pinckney, Howardena Pindell, Elliott Pinkney, Jerry Pinkney, Robert Pious, Adrian Piper, Horace Pippin, Betty Pitts, Stephanie Pogue, Naomi Polk, Charles Porter, James Porter, Georgette Powell, Judson Powell, Richard Powell, Daniel Pressley, Leslie Price, Ramon Price, Nelson Primus, Arnold Prince, E. (Evelyn?) Proctor, Nancy Prophet, Ronnie Prosser, William Pryor, Noah Purifoy, Florence Purviance, Martin Puryear, Mavis Pusey, Teodoro Ramos Blanco y Penita, Helen Ramsaran, Joseph Randolph; Thomas Range, Frank Rawlings, Jennifer Ray, Maxine Raysor, Patrick Reason, Roscoe Reddix, Junius Redwood, James Reed, Jerry Reed, Donald Reid, O. Richard Reid, Robert Reid, Leon Renfro, John Rhoden, Ben Richardson, Earle Richardson, Enid Richardson, Gary Rickson, John Riddle, Gregory Ridley, Faith Ringgold, Haywood Rivers, Arthur Roach, Malkia Roberts, Royal Robertson, Aminah Robinson, Charles Robinson, John N. Robinson, Peter L. Robinson, Brenda Rogers, Charles Rogers, Herbert Rogers, Juanita Rogers, Sultan Rogers, Bernard Rollins, Henry Rollins, Arthur Rose, Charles Ross, James Ross, Nellie Mae Rowe, Sandra Rowe, Nancy Rowland, Winfred Russsell, Mahler Ryder, Alison Saar, Betye Saar, Charles Sallee, JoeSam., Marion Sampler, Bert Samples, Juan Sanchez, Eve Sandler, Walter Sanford, Floyd Sapp, Raymond Saunders, Augusta Savage, Ann Sawyer, Sydney Schenck, Vivian Schuyler Key, John Scott (Johnny) , John Tarrell Scott, Joyce Scott, William Scott, Charles Searles, Charles Sebree, Bernard Sepyo, Bennie Settles, Franklin Shands, Frank Sharpe, Christopher Shelton, Milton Sherrill, Thomas Sills, Gloria Simmons, Carroll Simms, Jewell Simon, Walter Simon, Coreen Simpson, Ken Simpson, Merton Simpson, William Simpson, Michael Singletary (as Singletry), Nathaniel Sirles, Margaret Slade (Kelley), Van Slater, Louis Sloan, Albert A. Smith, Alfred J. Smith, Alvin Smith, Arenzo Smith, Damballah Dolphus Smith, Floyd Smith, Frank Smith, George Smith, Howard Smith, John Henry Smith, Marvin Smith, Mary T. Smith, Sue Jane Smith, Vincent Smith, William Smith, Zenobia Smith, Rufus Snoddy, Sylvia Snowden, Carroll Sockwell, Ben Solowey, Edgar Sorrells, Georgia Speller, Henry Speller, Shirley Stark, David Stephens, Lewis Stephens, Walter Stephens, Erik Stephenson, Nelson Stevens, Mary Stewart, Renée Stout, Edith Strange, Thelma Streat, Richard Stroud, Dennis Stroy, Charles Suggs, Sharon Sulton, Johnnie Swearingen, Earle Sweeting, Roderick Sykes, Clarence Talley, Ann Tanksley, Henry O. Tanner, James Tanner, Ralph Tate, Carlton Taylor, Cecil Taylor, Janet Taylor Pickett, Lawrence Taylor, William (Bill) Taylor, Herbert Temple, Emerson Terry, Evelyn Terry, Freida Tesfagiorgis, Alma Thomas, Charles Thomas, James \"Son Ford\" Thomas, Larry Erskine Thomas, Matthew Thomas, Roy Thomas, William Thomas (a.k.a. Juba Solo), Conrad Thompson, Lovett Thompson, Mildred Thompson, Phyllis Thompson, Bob Thompson, Russ Thompson, Dox Thrash, Mose Tolliver, William Tolliver, Lloyd Toone, John Torres, Elaine Towns, Bill Traylor, Charles Tucker, Clive Tucker, Yvonne Edwards Tucker, Charlene Tull, Donald Turner, Leo Twiggs, Alfred Tyler, Anna Tyler, Barbara Tyson Mosley, Bernard Upshur, Jon Urquhart, Florestee Vance, Ernest Varner, Royce Vaughn, George Victory, Harry Vital, Ruth Waddy, Annie Walker, Charles Walker, Clinton Walker, Earl Walker, Lawrence Walker, Raymond Walker [a.k.a. Bo Walker], William Walker, Bobby Walls, Daniel Warburg, Eugene Warburg, Denise Ward-Brown, Evelyn Ware, Laura Waring, Masood Ali Warren, Horace Washington, James Washington, Mary Washington, Timothy Washington, Richard Waters, James Watkins, Curtis Watson, Howard Watson, Willard Watson, Richard Waytt, Claude Weaver, Stephanie Weaver, Clifton Webb, Derek Webster, Edward Webster, Albert Wells, James Wells, Roland Welton, Barbara Wesson, Pheoris West, Lamonte Westmoreland, Charles White, Cynthia White, Franklin White, George White, J. Philip White, Jack White (sculptor), Jack White (painter), John Whitmore, Jack Whitten, Garrett Whyte, Benjamin Wigfall, Bertie Wiggs, Deborah Wilkins, Timothy Wilkins, Billy Dee Williams, Chester Williams, Douglas Williams, Frank Williams, George Williams, Gerald Williams, Jerome Williams, Jose Williams, Laura Williams, Matthew Williams, Michael K. Williams, Pat Ward Williams, Randy Williams, Roy Lee Williams, Todd Williams, Walter Williams, William T. Williams, Yvonne Williams, Philemona Williamson, Stan Williamson, Luster Willis, A. B. Wilson, Edward Wilson, Ellis Wilson, Fred Wilson, George Wilson, Henry Wilson, John Wilson, Stanley C. Wilson, Linda Windle, Eugene Winslow, Vernon Winslow, Cedric Winters, Viola Wood, Hale Woodruff, Roosevelt Woods, Shirley Woodson, Beulah Woodard, Bernard Wright, Dmitri Wright, Estella Viola Wright, George Wright, Richard Wyatt, Frank Wyley, Richard Yarde, James Yeargans, Joseph Yoakum, Bernard Young, Charles Young, Clarence Young, Kenneth Young, Milton Young.

WASHINGTON (DC). Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
A Checklist of the Collection.
Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 1977.
Description of holdings as of 1977, including materials by: Charles Alston, Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, Cinque Gallery, Eldzier Cortor, Ernest Crichlow, Roy DeCarava, Avel DeKnight, Joseph Delaney, Melvin Edwards, Allen Fannin and Dorothy Fannin [as Farmen], Dakar Festival, Harmon Foundation, Palmer Hayden, Al Hollingsworth, Sargent Johnson, Cliff Joseph, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Norman Lewis, Edward Loper, Al Loving, Charles McGee, John Outterbridge, Howardena Pindell, Horace Pippin, John Rhoden, Faith Ringgold, Bill Rivers, Thomas Sills, Merton Simpson, Edward Spriggs, Henry Tanner, James Washington, Weusi Gallery, Charles White, Ellis Wilson, John Wilson, Hale Woodruff

Washington (DC). Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
ESTHER G. ROLICK papers, 1941-1985.
Donation through 1985.
Letters, printed material, scrapbooks, sketches, financial material and photographs. REELS 827-828: 355 Letters from May Swenson, Babette Deutsch, Elizabeth Sparhawk-Jones and others; exhibition catalogs, announcements and guest lists; a scrapbook of clippings, letters and announcements; 50 sketches and drawings by classmates, including Helen DeMott, Terry Haas and Enrique Grau; and 2 illustrated children\'s stories by Rolick. REEL 950: Photographs, including: 10 of Rolick in her studio (a copyprint by Mako Oike of Rolick is also microfilmed on reel 1817 fr. 1047-1048); the installation of her exhibition at Jacques Seligmann & Co., 1953; works of art by Rolick, Padraic Collum, Virginia Dudley, Alice Klein, Deka Newlin, May Swenson, Louise Taeman and Val Telberg. UNMICROFILMED: Correspondence, 1960-1985; photographs of Palermo, Italy, Rolick and her art work, Rolick as a child, and her friends and family; exhibition catalogs, Announcements, theatre programs, travel brochures and clippings; 2 scrapbooks containing clippings, poems by Rolick, financial material, travel brochures, exhibition announcements and catalogs; writings by Rolick and others; business records; and a sketch and a silkscreen print. Also included are 9 cassettes of untranscribed interviews conducted by Rolick for her class \"Black Music and Art,\" at Mercy College, ca. 1970-1971. Interviewees include: Charles Alston, Benny Andrews, Romare Bearden, W. Joseph Black, Robert Blackburn, Valerie Capers, Roy DeCarava, Allen Fannin, Dorothy Fannin, Alvin Hollingsworth, Jean Hutson (curator and chief of the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture 1948-80), Jacob Lawrence, Norman Lewis, John Rhoden, Edward S. Spriggs, Hale Woodruff, and artists affiliated with the Cinque Gallery, Weusi Gallery, and SPIRAL, an artist\'s group.

WASHINGTON (DC). Howard University Gallery of Art.
Exhibition of Negro Artists of Chicago.
February 1-25, 1941.
(4) pp. exhib. cat., illus., list of artists included. Text by Norman MacLeish \"Negro Art in Chicago.\" Presented in observance of National Negro History Week and the 75th anniversary of the Proclamation of the 13th Amendment. Featured many of the works from the historic 1940 Chicago Exposition. Artists included: Henry Avery, Margaret Burroughs, John Carlis, William Carter, Eldzier Cortor, Charles Davis, Katherine Dorsey, Ramon Gabriel, Bernard Goss, Charles T. Haig, Fred Hollingsworth, Clarence Lawson, Frank Neal, George Neal (illus.), Charles Sebree, Earl Walker, Charles White; sculptors Edward T. Collier, Joseph A. Kersey (illus.), Marion Perkins, David Ross. Alonzo Aden. [Review: Rosa Chatfield-Taylor, \"Howard University Holds Negro Exhibit,\" The Washington Post (February 16, 1941):VI:4.]

WASHINGTON (DC). Smith-Mason Gallery of Art, in cooperation with the National Bank of Washington.
National Exhibition of Black Artists.
October 10-November 30, 1971.
20 pp. exhib. cat., illus. Group exhibition. Included: William E. Artis, Charles Axt, Francis Baird, Bill Banks, Ellen Banks, Mohammed S. Bey, Antonio M. Blackburn, Shirley L. Bolton, Arthur L. Britt, Benjamin Britt, Malcolm Brown, Calvin Burnett, Elwyn Bush, Yvonne Carter, Dana Chandler, Wallace X. Conway, Art Coppedge, Eldzier Cortor, G. Caliman Coxe, Philip A. Coxe, Randall Craig, Rachel Davis, Robert Freeman, Reginald Gammon, Jim Gary, Leroy Gaskin, Patricia Giles, Rex Goreleigh, Eugene Grigsby, Phillip Hampton, Reba D. Hill, Alvin C. Hollingsworth, Humbert Howard, Nathaniel Hunter, Alice E.W. Ivory, Catherine James, Venda Jennings, Lester L. Johnson, Ben Jones, Lois Mailou Jones, Jack Jordan, Charles E. Joyner, Harriet Kennedy, Raymond Lark, Yvonne Lawson, Juan Logan, Edward L. Loper, Sr., Edward L. Loper, Jr., Ed Love, Hedrick E. Marshall, Corinne Mitchell, Evelyn Mitchell, Hedrick E. Mitchell, Lorraine S. Montgomery, Frederick A. Morris, Keith Morrison, Jimmie Mosely, Barbara J. Peterson, Delilah W. Pierce, Betty J. Pitts, James A. Porter, Georgette Powell, Roscoe C. Reddix, William H. Richardson, Catherine B. Richmond, Percy Ricks, Gregory Ridley, Lucille Roberts, Donald J. Robertson, Peter L. Robinson, Jr., Arthur Roland, Jr., Arthur Rose, Frank Sharp, Kenn Simpson, Michael Singletary, Vincent D. Smith, Zenobia Smith, Dale Spann, Edith G. Strange, Larry J. Strickland, Bill Taylor, Elmer D. Taylor, Jean Taylor, Conrad Thompson, Leo Twiggs, Jean Valentine, Larry Walker, Rena Watson (as Renee), Evelyn Ware, James Lesesne Wells, Pheoris West, Garrett Whyte, Louis Williams, George L. Wilson, Daniel R. Wynn, Charles (Chuck) Young. 4to (31 x 12 cm.), wraps.

YONKERS (NY). Temple Emanu-El.
Festival of Arts.
1965.
Group exhibition of Spiral members and others: Charles Alston, Emma Amos, Romare Bearden, Vivian E. Browne, Ernest Crichlow, Fred Eure, Inge Hardison, Alvin Hollingsworth, Jacob Lawrence, Hughie Lee-Smith, Norman Lewis, William Majors, Bruce Nugent, Billie Pickard-Pritchard, Arnold Prince, Vincent Smith, Bob Thompson, Jack Whitten, Hale Woodruff. [Courtesy Emma Amos.]

Alvin C. Hollingsworth (25 February 1928 - July 14, 2000),[1][2] whose pseudonyms included Alvin Holly,[1] was an African-American painter and one of the first Black artists in comic books.Contents 1 Biography
1.1 Early life and comics
1.2 Fine art career
2 Death
3 Bibliography
4 References
5 External linksBiography
Early life and comicsAlvin Carl Hollingsworth was born in Harlem, New York City, New York, of West Indian parents,[3] and began drawing at age 4. By 12 he was an art assistant on Holyoke Publishing\'s Cat-Man Comics. Attending The High School of Music & Art, he was a classmate of future comic book artist and editor Joe Kubert.[1][4]Circa 1941, he began illustrating for crime comics.[1] Since it was not standard practice during this era for comic-book credits to be given routinely, comprehensive credits are difficult to ascertain; Hollingsworth\'s first confirmed comic-book work is the signed, four-page war comics story \"Robot Plane\" in Aviation Press\' Contact Comics #5 (cover-dated March 1945), which he both penciled and inked.[5] Through the remainder of the 1940s, he confirmably drew for Holyoke\'s Captain Aero Comics (as Al Hollingsworth),[6] and Fiction House\'s Wings Comics, where he did the feature \"Suicide Smith\" at least sporadically from 1946 to 1950. He is tentatively identified under the initials \"A. H.\" as an artist on the feature \"Captain Power\" in Novack Publishing\'s Great Comics in 1945.[5]In the following decade, credited as Alvin Hollingsworth or A. C. Hollingsworth, he drew for a number of publishers and series, including Avon Comics\' and later Superior Publishers Limited\'s The Mask of Dr. Fu Manchu; Premier Magazines\' Police Against Crime; Ribage\'s romance comic Youthful Romances; and horror comics such as Master Comics\' Dark Mysteries and Trojan Magazines\' Beware.[5] As Al Hollingsworth, he drew horror comics including Avon\'s Witchcraft and Premier\'s Mysterious Stories, and romance comics such as Lev Gleason Publications\' Boy Loves Girl.[6] One standard source credits him, without specification, as an artist on stories for Fox Comics (the feature \"Numa\" in Rulah, Jungle Goddess, and \"Bronze Man\' in Blue Beetle) and on war stories for the publisher Spotlight.[1]Historian Shaun Clancy, citing Fawcett Comics writer-editor Roy Ald as his source, identified Hollingsworth as an artist on Fawcett\'s Negro Romance #2 (Aug. 1950).[7]In the mid-1950s, he worked on newspaper comic strips including the 1955 Kandy,[8] from the Smith-Mann Syndicate, as well as Scorchy Smith and, with George Shedd, Martin Keel.[1]During the 1960s, Hollingsworth taught illustration at the High School of Art & Design on in Manhattan.
Fine art careerHollingsworth thereafter left comics for a career as a fine art painter, and from 1980 until retiring in 1998 he taught art as a professor at Hostos Community College of the City University of New York.[1] As a painter, his subjects included such contemporary social issues as civil rights for women and African Americans, as well as jazz and dance.[4] Of one subject he painted, an African Jesus Christ, he told Ebony magazine in 1971, \"I have always felt that Christ was a Black man,\" and said the subject represented a \"philosophical symbol of any of the modern prophets who have been trying to show us the right way. To me, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King are such prophets.\"[9] An authority on fluorescent paint, he worked in both representational and abstract art.[10]In the summer of 1963, he and fellow African-American artists Romare Bearden and William Majors formed the group Spiral in order to help the Civil Rights Movement through art exhibitions.[11] At some point during the 1960s, he directed an art program teaching young students commercial art and fine art at the Harlem Parents Committee Freedom School.[10]
DeathHollingsworth was living in New York\'s Westchester County at the time of his death at age 72.[2]
Bibliography Hollingsworth, A. C. I\'d Like the Goo-Gen-Heim: writer-illustrator, children\'s book (1970; reprinted Guggenheim Foundation, 2009)[12]
pioneering black artist Alvin C. Hollingsworth.In the early 1960s, Josh was the only white kid in the last segregated school in New York City.His experiences as a “Black Cracker” are the subject of his new book. (BTW, you can buy copies signed by Josh on Amazon now.)Josh’s father, Bruce Jay Friedman, edited Men, Man\'s World and other men’s adventure magazines for Martin Goodman’s Magazine Management company.Because of his dad’s job, Josh got to meet some of the writers and artists who sold stories, artwork and cartoons to men’s pulp mags in their heyday.One of those artists was Alvin C. Hollingsworth, a.k.a. Al or A.C. Hollingsworth. He was also sometimes known by his cartoon pen name, Alvin Holly.Hollingsworth was one of the first African American artists to break into the comics and magazine cartoon business.Among his markets were the men’s adventure magazines that Josh Alan Friedman’s father edited. “I remember Al very well,” Josh told me in a recent phone call. “I was the ‘Black Cracker,’ the only white kid at my school. When my dad brought Al on, he was the only black guy working for the men’s magazines that we knew of, at least at Magazine Management, where he mostly did cartoons.” Al was also a very good painter, who eventually had his paintings shown in galleries and museums. I remember that he came over for dinner a few times to our house and he would always bring my dad one of his new paintings. I also remember Al was a bodybuilder. Huge arms. He was a heavy weightlifter. In fact, a lot of the artists who did artwork for the Magazine Management magazines were bodybuilders. Mort Kunstler, James Bama, almost all of them. Well, not the cartoonists (said Josh with a laugh). Al was probably the only bodybuilder cartoonist.”Unlike Kunstler and Bama, who provided painted cover art and illustrations to men’s magazines, Al Hollingsworth sold them line drawings and “Good Girl Art” cartoons.But he is probably better known for his comic book art.Along with Matt Baker, Hollingsworth was one of the most prominent African-American comic book artists of “Golden Age” and early “Silver Age” comics.Starting in 1948, when he was only 20, Hollingsworth worked off and on with the legendary Joe Simon and Jack Kirby studio. In the 1950s, he penciled and provided stories for adventure and horror comics published by Avon, Key, Trojan and Comic Media.By the late 1960s, Hollingsworth had pretty much left the comics and men’s magazine cartoon art behind to focus on painting and teaching.He became a full professor at Hostos Community College of the City University of New York. He hosted a TV series about art for kids called You’re Part of Art and wrote the acclaimed children’s book about the Guggenheim Museum, I’d Like the Goo-Gen-Heim. Hollingsworth died in 2000, at the age of 72. But his art is still popular among collectors.At the age of 12, he was working as an assistant at Holyoke Publishing Company on its Catman Comics. He attended the High School of Music and Art and later got a degree in fine arts from the City University of New York.Hollingsworth worked at several other comic books companies in the 1940s and 1950s, with most of the works being crime and horror stories. He produced the comic strip Kandy, about an independent black woman and the men who loved her, for the Smith-Mann Syndicate. Smith-Mann offered an eight-page Sunday comics section featuring black characters that was apparently sold to black newspapers, including the Pittsburgh Courier. It was not clear if the syndicate was part of the Courier. I could find little information it.He also worked on a comic strip syndicated by the Associated Press called Scorchy Smith around the same time.
A.C. Hollingsworth artwork and comic booksA lithograph from the Don Quixote series by A.C. Hollingsworth, sold at sale in 2007.Working with writer and editor Roy Ald at Fawcett Comics in the early 1950s, he illustrated Negro Romance, one of the few comic books that showed African Americans as non-stereotypical, a seemingly far cry from most comics books at the time. Ald remembered Hollingsworth from years before when the young high-schooler had done pasteups and touchups, and ran errands at Fawcett, according to a History Detectives segment. Hollingsworth was the first African American artist hired by Fawcett, according to the segment.The series only lasted for three issues – with 100,000 copies per issue – and very few known copies apparently are still around. Here are photos of copies of the other covers.Hollingsworth turned to painting around 1955. His subjects included the civil rights movement, women, the life he knew in the city, jazz and more, and captured them as both abstract and representational art. He painted a series of murals for an apartment building in the Bronx, NY, called Don Quixote, along with lithographs mimicking them. I came across several of the Don Quixote lithographs on the web.
A.C. Hollingsworth artwork and comic booksThe cover of an issue of \"Negro Romance\" from 1950. A.C. Hollingsworth was the illustrator of the comic book.In 1963, he joined artist Romare Bearden, Hale Woodruff, Emma Amos, Norman Lewis and other African American artists to form the art group Spiral to show support through their art and exhibitions for the civil rights movement.Hollingsworth also hosted a 10-part series for NBC in 1970 called “You’re Part of Art,” and illustrated several books. His 1970 children’s book “I’d Like the Goo-Gen-Heim,” about a child’s visit to the Guggenheim Museum in New York, was reprinted in 2009 after a copy was found at a library sale. He produced a series of paintings of the construction of the building as it was being erected in the 1950s.
African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly called Afro-Americans, or, historically, Negroes or Colored (both now considered to be pejorative), are an American racial and ethnic group who, as defined by the United States census, consists of Americans who have ancestry from \"any of the Black racial groups of Africa\".[3] African Americans constitute the second largest racial and ethnic group in the U.S. after White Americans.[4] The term \"African American\" generally denotes descendants of Africans enslaved in the United States.[5][6] According to annual estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau, as of July 1, 2024, the overall Black population was estimated at 42,951,595, representing approximately 12.63% of the total U.S. population.[7]
African-American history began in the 16th century, when mainly West African and Central African slave traders sold African artisans, farmers, and warriors to European slave traders, who transported them across the Atlantic to the Western Hemisphere. They were sold as slaves to European colonists and put to work on plantations, particularly in the southern colonies. A few were able to achieve freedom through manumission or escape, and founded independent communities before and during the American Revolution. After the United States was founded in 1783, most American Black people continued to be enslaved, primarily in the American South, with four million enslaved people only liberated after the Northern victory over the South in the Civil War of 1861 to 1865.[8]
During Reconstruction, African Americans gained citizenship and adult-males the right to vote; however, due to widespread belief in White supremacy, they were treated as second-class citizens and soon effectively disenfranchised in the South. These circumstances changed due to participation in the military conflicts of the United States, substantial migration out of the South, the elimination of legal racial segregation, and the civil rights movement which sought political and social freedom. However, racism against African Americans and racial socioeconomic disparity remain a problem into the 21st century.
In the 20th and 21st centuries, immigration has played an increasingly significant role in the African-American community. As of 2022, 10% of the U.S. Black population were immigrants, and 20% were either immigrants or the children of immigrants.[9] While some Black immigrants or their children may also come to identify as African American, the majority of first-generation immigrants do not, preferring to identify with their nation of origin.[10][11] Most African Americans are of West African and coastal Central African ancestry, with varying amounts of Western European and Native American ancestry.[12]
African-American culture has had a significant influence on worldwide culture, making numerous contributions to the English language, literature, politics, cuisine, sports, and music. The African-American contribution to popular music is so profound that most American popular music, including gospel, blues, jazz, rock and roll, R&B, soul, funk, disco, hip hop, and house has its origins either partially or entirely in the African-American community.[13][14]
HistoryMain article: African American historySee also: African immigration to the United StatesColonial eraMain article: Slavery in the colonial history of the United StatesSee also: Atlantic slave trade
Major slave trading regions of Africa, 15th?19th centuriesThe vast majority of those who were enslaved and transported in the transatlantic slave trade were people from several Central and West African ethnic groups. They had been captured directly by European slave traders in coastal raids,[15] or captured and sold by West African slave traders or by half-European \"merchant princes\"[16] to European slave traders, who brought them to the Americas.[17]
The first African slaves in what is now the United States arrived in the early 16th century. Africans were among Juan Ponce de León\'s 1513 voyage that landed in what would become Spanish Florida, and enslaved Africans arrived around the same time to Spanish Puerto Rico.[18][19]
Africans also came via Santo Domingo in the Caribbean to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony (most likely located in the Winyah Bay area of present-day South Carolina), founded by Spanish explorer Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón in 1526.[20] The ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterward, due to an epidemic and the colony was abandoned. The settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to the Island of Hispaniola, whence they had come.[20]
The enslaved explorer Esteban arrived in Florida with the Narváez expedition in 1528, a journey that first landed in Santo Domingo and later traveled into Spanish Texas and the Southwest before ending in Mexico.[21]
The marriage between Luisa de Abrego, a free Black domestic servant from Seville, and Miguel Rodríguez, a White Segovian conquistador in 1565 in St. Augustine (Spanish Florida), is the first known and recorded Christian marriage anywhere in what is now the continental United States.[22]Slaves processing tobacco in 17th-century Virginia, illustration from 1670The first recorded Africans in English America (including most of the future United States) were \"20 and odd negroes\" who arrived in Jamestown, Virginia via Cape Comfort in August 1619 as indentured servants.[23] As many Virginian settlers began to die from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers.[24]
An indentured servant (who could be White or Black) would work for several years (usually four to seven) without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery. Servants could be bought, sold, or leased, and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or attempting to running away. Unlike slaves, they were freed after their term of service expired or if their freedom was purchased. Their children did not inherit their status, and on their release from contract they received \"a year\'s provision of corn, double apparel, tools necessary\", and a small cash payment called \"freedom dues\".[25] Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom.[26] They raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or European settlers.[27]The first slave sale at New Amsterdam in 1655; illustration from 1895 by Howard Pyle[28]By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown, and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of lifetime slavery when they sentenced John Punch, a Negro, to lifetime servitude under his master Hugh Gwyn, for running away.[29][30]
In Spanish Florida, some Spanish married or had unions with Pensacola, Creek or African women, both enslaved and free, and their descendants created a mixed-race population of mestizos and mulattos. The Spanish encouraged slaves from the colony of Georgia to come to Florida as a refuge, promising freedom in exchange for conversion to Catholicism. King Charles II issued a royal proclamation freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted conversion and baptism. Most went to the area around St. Augustine, but escaped slaves also reached Pensacola. St. Augustine had mustered an all-Black militia unit defending Spanish Florida as early as 1683.[31]Reproduction of a handbill advertising a slave sale in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1769One of the Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would later own one of the first Black \"slaves\", John Casor, resulting from the court ruling of a civil case.[32][33]
The popular conception of a race-based slave system did not fully develop until the 18th century. The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in 1625 with the importation of eleven Black slaves into New Amsterdam (present-day New York City). All the colony\'s slaves, however, were freed upon its surrender to the English.[34]
Massachusetts was the first English colony to legally recognize slavery in 1641. In 1662, Virginia passed a law that children of enslaved women would take the status of the mother, rather than that of the father, as was the case under common law. This legal principle was called partus sequitur ventrum.[35][36]
By an act of 1699, Virginia ordered the deportation of all free Blacks, effectively defining all people of African descent who remained in the colony as slaves.[37] In 1670, the colonial assembly passed a law prohibiting free and baptized Blacks (and Native Americans) from purchasing Christians (in this act meaning White Europeans) but allowing them to buy people \"of their owne nation\".[38]1774 image of a fugitive slave in a New York newspaper, offering a $10 reward (equivalent to $288 in 2024). Slave owners, including George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, placed around 200,000 runaway slave adverts in newspapers across the US before slavery ended in 1865.[39][40]In Spanish Louisiana, although there was no movement toward abolition of the African slave trade, Spanish rule introduced a new law called coartación, which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others.[41] Although some did not have the money to do so, government measures on slavery enabled the existence of many free Blacks. This caused problems to the Spaniards with the French creoles (French who had settled in New France) who had also populated Spanish Louisiana. The French creoles cited that measure as one of the system\'s worst elements.[42]
First established in South Carolina in 1704, groups of armed White men?slave patrols?were formed to monitor enslaved Black people.[43] Their function was to police slaves, especially fugitives. Slave owners feared that slaves might organize revolts or slave rebellions, so state militias were formed to provide a military command structure and discipline within the slave patrols. These patrols were used to detect, encounter, and crush any organized slave meetings which might lead to revolts or rebellions.[43]
The earliest African American congregations and churches were organized before 1800 in both northern and southern cities following the Great Awakening. By 1775, Africans made up 20% of the population in the American colonies, which made them the second largest ethnic group after English Americans.[44]
From the American Revolution to the Civil WarMain article: Slavery in the United States
Crispus Attucks, the first \"martyr\" of the American Revolution. He was of Native American and African American descent.During the 1770s, Africans, both enslaved and free, helped rebellious American colonists secure their independence by defeating the British in the American Revolutionary War.[45] Blacks played a role in both sides in the American Revolution. Activists in the Patriot cause included James Armistead, Prince Whipple, and Oliver Cromwell.[46][47] Around 15,000 Black Loyalists left with the British after the war, most of them ending up as free Black people in England[48] or its colonies, such as the Black Nova Scotians and the Sierra Leone Creole people.[49][50]
In the Spanish Louisiana, Governor Bernardo de Gálvez organized Spanish free Black men into two militia companies to defend New Orleans during the American Revolution. They fought in the 1779 battle in which Spain captured Baton Rouge from the British. Gálvez also commanded them in campaigns against the British outposts in Mobile, Alabama, and Pensacola, Florida. He recruited slaves for the militia by pledging to free anyone who was seriously wounded and promised to secure a low price for coartación (buy their freedom and that of others) for those who received lesser wounds. During the 1790s, Governor Francisco Luis Héctor, baron of Carondelet reinforced local fortifications and recruit even more free Black men for the militia. Carondelet doubled the number of free Black men who served, creating two more militia companies?one made up of Black members and the other of pardo (mixed race). Serving in the militia brought free Black men one step closer to equality with Whites, allowing them, for example, the right to carry arms and boosting their earning power. However, actually these privileges distanced free Black men from enslaved Blacks and encouraged them to identify with Whites.[42]
Slavery had been tacitly enshrined in the US Constitution through provisions such as Article I, Section 2, Clause 3, commonly known as the 3/5 compromise. Due to the restrictions of Section 9, Clause 1, Congress was unable to pass an Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves until 1807.[51] Fugitive slave laws (derived from the Fugitive Slave Clause of the Constitution?Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3) were passed by Congress in both 1793 and 1850, guaranteeing the right of a slaveholder to recover an escaped slave anywhere within the US.[40] Slave owners, who viewed enslaved people as property, ensured that it became a federal crime to aid or assist those who had fled slavery or to interfere with their capture.[39] By that time, slavery, which almost exclusively targeted Black people, had become the most critical and contentious political issue in the Antebellum United States, repeatedly sparking crises and conflicts. Among these were the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, the infamous Dred Scott decision, and John Brown\'s raid on Harpers Ferry.Frederick Douglass, c.?1850Prior to the Civil War, eight serving presidents had owned slaves, a practice that was legally protected under the US Constitution.[52] By 1860, the number of enslaved Black people in the US had grown to between 3.5 and 4.4 million, largely as a result of the Atlantic slave trade. In addition, 488,000?500,000 Black people lived free (with legislated limits)[53] across the country.[54] With legislated limits imposed upon them in addition to \"unconquerable prejudice\" from Whites according to Henry Clay.[55] In response to these conditions, some free Black people chose to leave the US and emigrate to Liberia in West Africa.[53] Liberia had been established in 1821 as a settlement by the American Colonization Society (ACS), with many abolitionist members of the ACS believing Black Americans would have greater opportunities for freedom and equality in Africa than they would in the US.[53]
Slaves not only represented a significant financial investment for their owners, but they also played a crucial role in producing the country\'s most valuable product and export: cotton. Enslaved people were instrumental in the construction of several prominent structures such as, the United States Capitol, the White House and other Washington, D.C.?based buildings.[56] Similar building projects existed in the slave states.Slaves Waiting for Sale: Richmond, Virginia, 1853. Note the new clothes. The domestic slave trade broke up many families, and individuals lost their connection to families and clans.By 1815, the domestic slave trade had become a significant and major economic activity in the United States, continuing to flourish until the 1860s.[57] Historians estimate that nearly one million individuals were subjected to this forced migration, which was often referred to as a new \"Middle Passage\". The historian Ira Berlin described this internal forced migration of enslaved people as the \"central event\" in the life of a slave during the period between the American Revolution and the Civil War. Berlin emphasized that whether enslaved individuals were directly uprooted or lived in constant fear that they or their families would be involuntarily relocated, \"the massive deportation traumatized Black people\" throughout the US.[58] As a result of this large-scale forced movement, countless individuals lost their connection to families and clans, and many ethnic Africans lost their knowledge of varying tribal origins in Africa.[57]
The 1863 photograph of Wilson Chinn, a branded slave from Louisiana, along with the famous image of Gordon and his scarred back, served as two of the earliest and most powerful examples of how the newborn medium of photography could be used to visually document and encapsulate the brutality and cruelty of slavery.[59]Slave trader\'s business on Whitehall Street Atlanta, Georgia, 1864 during the American Civil War with a Union corporal of the United States Colored Troops sitting by the doorEmigration of free Blacks to their continent of origin had been proposed since the Revolutionary war. After Haiti became independent, it tried to recruit African Americans to migrate there after it re-established trade relations with the United States. The Haitian Union was a group formed to promote relations between the countries.[60] After riots against Blacks in Cincinnati, its Black community sponsored founding of the Wilberforce Colony, an initially successful settlement of African American immigrants to Canada. The colony was one of the first such independent political entities. It lasted for a number of decades and provided a destination for about 200 Black families emigrating from a number of locations in the United States.[60]
In 1863, during the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation. The proclamation declared that all slaves in Confederate-held territory were free.[61] Advancing Union troops enforced the proclamation, with Texas being the last state to be emancipated, in 1865.[62]Harriet Tubman, c.?1869Slavery in a few border states continued until the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865.[63] While the Naturalization Act of 1790 limited US citizenship to Whites only,[64][65] the 14th Amendment (1868) gave Black people citizenship, and the 15th Amendment (1870) gave Black men the right to vote.[66]
Reconstruction era and Jim CrowMain articles: Reconstruction era and Jim Crow lawsAfrican Americans quickly set up congregations for themselves, as well as schools and community/civic associations, to have space away from White control or oversight. While the post-war Reconstruction era was initially a time of progress for African Americans, that period ended in 1876. By the late 1890s, Southern states enacted Jim Crow laws to enforce racial segregation and disenfranchisement.[67] Segregation was now imposed with Jim Crow laws, using signs used to show Blacks where they could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat.[68] For those places that were racially mixed, non-Whites had to wait until all White customers were dealt with.[68] Most African Americans obeyed the Jim Crow laws, to avoid racially motivated violence. To maintain self-esteem and dignity, African Americans such as Anthony Overton and Mary McLeod Bethune continued to build their own schools, churches, banks, social clubs, and other businesses.[69]
In the last decade of the 19th century, racially discriminatory laws and racial violence aimed at African Americans began to mushroom in the United States, a period often referred to as the \"nadir of American race relations\". These discriminatory acts included racial segregation?upheld by the United States Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896?which was legally mandated by southern states and nationwide at the local level of government, voter suppression or disenfranchisement in the southern states, denial of economic opportunity or resources nationwide, and private acts of violence and mass racial violence aimed at African Americans unhindered or encouraged by government authorities.[70]
Great migration and civil rights movementMain articles: Great Migration and civil rights movement
A group of White men pose for a 1919 photograph as they stand over the Black victim, Will Brown, who had been lynched and had his body mutilated and burned during the Omaha race riot of 1919 in Omaha, Nebraska. Postcards and photographs of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the US.[71]The desperate conditions of African Americans in the South sparked the Great Migration during the first half of the 20th century which led to a growing African American community in Northern and Western United States.[72] The rapid influx of Blacks disturbed the racial balance within Northern and Western cities, exacerbating hostility between both Blacks and Whites in the two regions.[73] The Red Summer of 1919 was marked by hundreds of deaths and higher casualties across the US as a result of race riots that occurred in more than three dozen cities, such as the Chicago race riot of 1919 and the Omaha race riot of 1919. Overall, Blacks in Northern and Western cities experienced systemic discrimination in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for Blacks were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility. At the 1900 Hampton Negro Conference, Reverend Matthew Anderson said: \"...the lines along most of the avenues of wage earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South.\"[74] Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of \"targeted violence, restrictive covenants, redlining and racial steering\".[75] While many Whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward African Americans, many other Whites migrated to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions, a process known as White flight.[76]Rosa Parks being fingerprinted after being arrested for not giving up her seat on a bus to a White personDespite discrimination, drawing cards for leaving the hopelessness in the South were the growth of African American institutions and communities in Northern cities. Institutions included Black oriented organizations (e.g., Urban League, NAACP), churches, businesses, and newspapers, as well as successes in the development in African American intellectual culture, music, and popular culture (e.g., Harlem Renaissance, Chicago Black Renaissance). The Cotton Club in Harlem was a Whites-only establishment, with Blacks (such as Duke Ellington) allowed to perform, but to a White audience.[77] Black Americans also found a new ground for political power in Northern cities, without the enforced disabilities of Jim Crow.[78][79]
By the 1950s, the civil rights movement was gaining momentum. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a White woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head. The visceral response to his mother\'s decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the Black community throughout the US.[80] Vann Newkirk wrote \"the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of White supremacy\".[80] The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an all-White jury.[81] One hundred days after Emmett Till\'s murder, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus in Alabama?indeed, Parks told Emmett\'s mother Mamie Till that \"the photograph of Emmett\'s disfigured face in the casket was set in her mind when she refused to give up her seat on the Montgomery bus.\"[82]March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, August 28, 1963, shows civil rights leaders and union leaders.The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom and the conditions which brought it into being are credited with putting pressure on presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson put his support behind passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which expanded federal authority over states to ensure Black political participation through protection of voter registration and elections.[83] By 1966, the emergence of the Black Power movement, which lasted from 1966 to 1975, expanded upon the aims of the civil rights movement to include economic and political self-sufficiency, and freedom from White authority.[84]
During the post-war period, many African Americans continued to be economically disadvantaged relative to other Americans. Average Black income stood at 54 percent of that of White workers in 1947, and 55 percent in 1962. In 1959, median family income for Whites was $5,600 (equivalent to $60,405 in 2024), compared with $2,900 (equivalent to $31,281 in 2024) for non-White families. In 1965, 43 percent of all Black families fell into the poverty bracket, earning under $3,000 (equivalent to $29,933 in 2024) a year. The 1960s saw improvements in the social and economic conditions of many Black Americans.[85]
From 1965 to 1969, Black family income rose from 54 to 60 percent of White family income. In 1968, 23 percent of Black families earned under $3,000 (equivalent to $27,126 in 2024) a year, compared with 41 percent in 1960. In 1965, 19 percent of Black Americans had incomes equal to the national median, a proportion that rose to 27 percent by 1967. In 1960, the median level of education for Blacks had been 10.8 years, and by the late 1960s, the figure rose to 12.2 years, half a year behind the median for Whites.[85]
Post?civil rights eraMain article: Post?civil rights era in African-American history
U.S. President Barack Obama\'s official photograph in the Oval Office on 6 December 2012.Politically and economically, African Americans have made substantial strides during the post?civil rights era. In 1967, Thurgood Marshall became the first African American Supreme Court Justice. In 1968, Shirley Chisholm became the first Black woman elected to the US Congress. In 1989, Douglas Wilder became the first African American elected governor in US history. Clarence Thomas succeeded Marshall to become the second African American Supreme Court Justice in 1991. In 1992, Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois became the first African American woman elected to the US Senate. There were 8,936 Black officeholders in the United States in 2000, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001, there were 484 Black mayors.[86]
In 2005, the number of Africans immigrating to the United States, in a single year, surpassed the peak number who were involuntarily brought to the United States during the Atlantic slave trade.[87] On November 4, 2008, Democratic Senator Barack Obama?the son of a White American mother and a Kenyan father?defeated Republican Senator John McCain to become the first African American to be elected president. At least 95 percent of African American voters voted for Obama.[88][89] He also received overwhelming support from young and educated Whites, a majority of Asians,[90] and Hispanics,[90] picking up a number of new states in the Democratic electoral column.[88][89] Obama lost the overall White vote, although he won a larger proportion of White votes than any previous non-incumbent Democratic presidential candidate since Jimmy Carter.[91] Obama was reelected for a second and final term, by a similar margin on November 6, 2012.[92] In 2021, Kamala Harris, the daughter of a Jamaican father and Indian mother, became the first woman, the first African American, and the first Asian American to serve as Vice President of the United States.[93][failed verification] In June 2021, Juneteenth, a day which commemorates the end of slavery in the US, became a federal holiday.[94]
DemographicsFurther information: Historical racial and ethnic demographics of the United States § Black population as a percentage of the total population by U.S. region and state (1790?2010), List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations, List of U.S. counties with African-American majority populations, and List of U.S. states by African-American population
Black Americans (alone) population pyramid in 2020
Proportion of African Americans in each US state, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States Census
Proportion of Black Americans (alone or in combination) in each county of the fifty states, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States census
Majority Black American counties in the United States according to the 2020 census
US census map indicating US counties with fewer than 25 Black or African American inhabitants
Graph showing the percentage of the African American population living in the American South, 1790?2010. Note the major declines between 1910 and 1940 and 1940?1970, and the reverse trend post-1970. Nonetheless, the absolute majority of the African American population has always lived in the American South.In 1790, when the first US census was taken, Africans (including slaves and free people) numbered about 760,000?about 19.3% of the population. In 1860, at the start of the Civil War, the African American population had increased to 4.4 million, but the percentage rate dropped to 14% of the overall population of the country. The vast majority were slaves, with only 488,000 counted as \"freemen\". By 1900, the Black population had doubled and reached 8.8 million.[95]
In 1910, about 90% of African Americans lived in the South. Large numbers began migrating north looking for better job opportunities and living conditions, and to escape Jim Crow laws and racial violence. The Great Migration, as it was called, spanned the 1890s to the 1970s. From 1916 through the 1960s, more than 6 million Black people moved north. But in the 1970s and 1980s, that trend reversed, with more African Americans moving south to the Sun Belt than leaving it.[96]
The African American population in the United States declined over time as a percentage of the total population until 1930, and has been rising since then:
African Americans in the United States[97]Year Number % of totalpopulation % Change(10 yr) Slaves % in slavery1790 757,208 19.3% (highest) ? 697,681 92%1800 1,002,037 18.9% 32.3% 893,602 89%1810 1,377,808 19.0% 37.5% 1,191,362 86%1820 1,771,656 18.4% 28.6% 1,538,022 87%1830 2,328,642 18.1% 31.4% 2,009,043 86%1840 2,873,648 16.8% 23.4% 2,487,355 87%1850 3,638,808 15.7% 26.6% 3,204,287 88%1860 4,441,830 14.1% 22.1% 3,953,731 89%1870 4,880,009 12.7% 9.9% ? ?1880 6,580,793 13.1% 34.9% ? ?1890 7,488,788 11.9% 13.8% ? ?1900 8,833,994 11.6% 18.0% ? ?1910 9,827,763 10.7% 11.2% ? ?1920 10.5 million 9.9% 6.8% ? ?1930 11.9 million 9.7% (lowest) 13% ? ?1940 12.9 million 9.8% 8.4% ? ?1950 15.0 million 10.0% 16% ? ?1960 18.9 million 10.5% 26% ? ?1970 22.6 million 11.1% 20% ? ?1980 26.5 million 11.7% 17% ? ?1990 30.0 million 12.1% 13% ? ?2000 34.6 million 12.3% 15% ? ?2010 38.9 million 12.6% 12% ? ?2020 41.1 million 12.4% 5.6% ? ?By 1990, the African American population reached about 30 million and represented 12% of the US population, roughly the same proportion as in 1900.[98]
African American groups in the USAYears Non-Hispanic Blacks Black Hispanics Total# % # %2020 39,940,338 12.1% 1,163,862 0.3% 41,104,200At the time of the 2000 US census, 54.8% of African Americans lived in the South. In that year, 17.6% of African Americans lived in the Northeast and 18.7% in the Midwest, while only 8.9% lived in the Western states. The west does have a sizable Black population in certain areas, however. California, the nation\'s most populous state, has the fifth largest African American population, only behind New York, Texas, Georgia, and Florida. According to the 2000 census, approximately 2.05% of African Americans identified as Hispanic or Latino in origin,[99] many of whom may be of Brazilian, Puerto Rican, Dominican, Cuban, Haitian, or other Latin American descent. The only self-reported ancestral groups larger than African Americans are the Irish and Germans.[100]Band rehearsal on 125th Street in Harlem, the historic epicenter of African American culture. New York City is home by a significant margin to the world\'s largest Black population of any city outside Africa, at over 2.2 million. African immigration to New York City is now driving the growth of the city\'s Black population.[101]According to the 2010 census, nearly 3% of people who self-identified as Black had recent ancestors who immigrated from another country. Self-reported non-Hispanic Black immigrants from the Caribbean, mostly from Jamaica and Haiti, represented 0.9% of the US population, at 2.6 million.[102] Self-reported Black immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa also represented 0.9%, at about 2.8 million.[102] Additionally, self-identified Black Hispanics represented 0.4% of the United States population, at about 1.2 million people, largely found within the Puerto Rican and Dominican communities.[103] Self-reported Black immigrants hailing from other countries in the Americas, such as Brazil and Canada, as well as several European countries, represented less than 0.1% of the population. Mixed-race Hispanic and non-Hispanic Americans who identified as being part Black, represented 0.9% of the population. Of the 12.6% of United States residents who identified as Black, around 10.3% were \"native Black American\" or ethnic African Americans, who are direct descendants of West/Central Africans brought to the US as slaves. These individuals make up well over 80% of all Blacks in the country. When including people of mixed-race origin, about 13.5% of the US population self-identified as Black or \"mixed with Black\".[104] However, according to the US Census Bureau, evidence from the 2000 census indicates that many African and Caribbean immigrant ethnic groups do not identify as \"Black, African Am., or Negro\". Instead, they wrote in their own respective ethnic groups in the \"Some Other Race\" write-in entry. As a result, the census bureau devised a new, separate \"African American\" ethnic group category in 2010 for ethnic African Americans.[105] Nigerian Americans and Ethiopian Americans were the most reported sub-Saharan African groups in the United States.[106]
In the 2020 census, the African American population was undercounted at an estimated rate of 3.3%, up from 2.1% in 2010.[107]
Proportion in each countyAfrican American (Alone) population distribution over has the largest African American population by state with approximately 4 million.[108] Followed by Texas is Florida, with 3.8 million, and Georgia, with 3.6 million.[109] Mississippi is the state with the highest African American share of the population at 39%. Followed by Mississippi is Louisiana at 34%, and Georgia at 32%.[108]
US citiesFurther information: List of U.S. cities with large Black populations and List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populationsAfter 100 years of African Americans leaving the south in large numbers seeking better opportunities and treatment in the west and north, a movement known as the Great Migration, there is now a reverse trend, called the New Great Migration. As with the earlier Great Migration, the New Great Migration is primarily directed toward cities and large urban areas, such as Charlotte, Houston, Dallas, Fort Worth, Huntsville, Raleigh, Tampa, San Antonio, New Orleans, Memphis, Nashville, Jacksonville, and so forth.[110] A growing percentage of African Americans from the west and north are migrating to the southern region of the US for economic and cultural reasons. In 2020, New York City, Chicago, and Los Angeles metropolitan areas had the highest decline in African Americans, while Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston had the highest increase respectively.[111][112] Despite recent declines, as of 2020, the New York City metropolitan area still has the largest African American metropolitan population in the United States and the only to have over 3 million African Americans.[113][114]
Among cities of 100,000 or more, South Fulton, Georgia had the highest percentage of Black residents of any large US city in 2020, with 93%. Other large cities with African American majorities include Jackson, Mississippi (80%), Detroit, Michigan (80%), Birmingham, Alabama (70%), Miami Gardens, Florida (67%), Memphis, Tennessee (63%), Montgomery, Alabama (62%), Baltimore, Maryland (60%), Augusta, Georgia (59%), Shreveport, Louisiana (58%), New Orleans, Louisiana (57%), Macon, Georgia (56%), Baton Rouge, Louisiana (55%), Hampton, Virginia (53%), Newark, New Jersey (53%), Mobile, Alabama (53%), Cleveland, Ohio (52%), and Brockton, Massachusetts (51%).
Claiborne County, Mississippi is the Blackest county in the U.S. at 87% Black in 2020. Cook County, Illinois has the largest Black population in the U.S. with 1,185,601 Black residents in 2020.
The nation\'s most affluent community with an African American majority resides in View Park?Windsor Hills, California, with an annual median household income of $159,618 and median home price of about $1.5 million in 2025.[115][116] Other largely affluent and African American communities include Prince George\'s County (namely Mitchellville, Woodmore, Upper Marlboro) and Charles County in Maryland,[117] DeKalb County (namely Stonecrest, Lithonia, Smoke Rise) and South Fulton in Georgia, Charles City County in Virginia, Baldwin Hills in California, Hillcrest and Uniondale in New York, and Cedar Hill, DeSoto, and Missouri City in Texas. Additionally, there is a significant affluent Black presence in the southern Chicago suburbs of Cook County, Illinois. A report from the National Association of Real Estate Brokers (NAREB) indicated that 5 of the top 10 municipalities nationwide (with at least 500 Black households) registering the highest Black homeownership rates were in this area - including Olympia Fields, South Holland, Flossmoor, Matteson, and Lynwood.[118] In 2006, Queens County, New York was the only county with a population of 65,000 or more where African Americans had a higher median household income than White Americans.[119]
Seatack, Virginia is currently the oldest African American community in the United States.[120] It survives today with a vibrant and active civic community.[121]
EducationMain article: History of African-American education
Former slave reading, 1870During slavery, anti-literacy laws were enacted in the US that prohibited education for Black people. Slave owners saw literacy as a threat to the institution of slavery. As a North Carolina statute stated, \"Teaching slaves to read and write, tends to excite dissatisfaction in their minds, and to produce insurrection and rebellion.\"[122]
When slavery was finally abolished in 1865, public educational systems were expanding across the country. By 1870, around seventy-four institutions in the south provided a form of advanced education for African American students. By 1900, over a hundred programs at these schools provided training for Black professionals, including teachers. Many of the students at Fisk University, including the young W. E. B. Du Bois, taught school during the summers to support their studies.[123]
African Americans were very concerned to provide quality education for their children, but White supremacy limited their ability to participate in educational policymaking on the political level. State governments soon moved to undermine their citizenship by restricting their right to vote. By the late 1870s, Blacks were disenfranchised and segregated across the American South.[124] White politicians in Mississippi and other states withheld financial resources and supplies from Black schools. Nevertheless, the presence of Black teachers, and their engagement with their communities both inside and outside the classroom, ensured that Black students had access to education despite these external constraints.[125][126]
During World War II, demands for unity and racial tolerance on the home front provided an opening for the first Black history curriculum in the country.[127] For example, during the early 1940s, Madeline Morgan, a Black teacher in the Chicago public schools, created a curriculum for students in grades one through eight highlighting the contributions of Black people to the history of the United States. At the close of the war, Chicago\'s Board of Education downgraded the curriculum\'s status from mandatory to optional.[128]
Predominantly Black schools for kindergarten through twelfth grade students were common throughout the US before the 1970s. By 1972, however, desegregation efforts meant that only 25% of Black students were in schools with more than 90% non-White students. However, since then, a trend towards re-segregation affected communities across the country: by 2011, 2.9 million African American students were in such overwhelmingly minority schools, including 53% of Black students in school districts that were formerly under desegregation orders.[129][130]
As late as 1947, about one third of African Americans over 65 were considered to lack the literacy to read and write their own names. By 1969, illiteracy as it had been traditionally defined, had been largely eradicated among younger African Americans.[131]Astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson is director of New York City\'s Hayden Planetarium.Between 1995 and 2009, freshmen college enrollment for African Americans increased by 73 percent and only 15 percent for Whites.[132] Black women are enrolled in college more than any other race and gender group, leading all with 9.7% enrolled according to the 2011 US census.[133][134] The average high school graduation rate of Blacks in the United States has steadily increased to 71% in 2013.[135] Separating this statistic into component parts shows it varies greatly depending upon the state and the school district examined. 38% of Black males graduated in the state of New York but in Maine 97% graduated and exceeded the White male graduation rate by 11 percentage points.[136] In much of the southeastern United States and some parts of the southwestern United States the graduation rate of White males was in fact below 70% such as in Florida where 62% of White males graduated from high school. Examining specific school districts paints an even more complex picture. In the Detroit school district, the graduation rate of Black males was 20% but 7% for White males. In the New York City school district 28% of Black males graduate from high school compared to 57% of White males. In Newark County[where?] 76% of Black males graduated compared to 67% for White males. Further academic improvement has occurred in 2015. Roughly 23% of all Blacks have bachelor\'s degrees. In 1988, 21% of Whites had obtained a bachelor\'s degree versus 11% of Blacks. In 2015, 23% of Blacks had obtained a bachelor\'s degree versus 36% of Whites.[137] Foreign born Blacks, 9% of the Black population, made even greater strides. They exceed native born Blacks by 10 percentage points.[137]
College Board, which runs the official college-level advanced placement (AP) programs in American high schools, have has received criticism in recent years that its curricula have focused too much on Euro-centric history.[138] In 2020, College Board reshaped some curricula among history-based courses to further reflect the African diaspora.[139] In 2021, College Board announced it would be piloting an AP African American Studies course between 2022 and 2024. The course officially launched in August 2024.[140][141]
In June 2023, the Supreme Court ended race-based affirmative action at American colleges and universities. This landmark Supreme Court decision is widely believed to contribute to a decline in African American enrollment at the nation\'s most selective and prominent colleges and universities, where African American applicants often have, on average, lower standardized test scores and GPAs compared to the overall applicant pool. In response, many of the nation\'s most popular historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have reported a significant surge in applications and to a 2025 study, African Americans have the highest average student debt. African Americans with bachelor\'s degrees owe an average of $52,726 in student loans. Nearly 70% of African Americans took out a loan to fund their undergraduate education.[146]
Historically Black colleges and universitiesMain articles: Historically black colleges and universities, List of historically black colleges and universities, and African American student access to medical schoolsHistorically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), which were founded when segregated institutions of higher learning did not admit African Americans, continue to thrive and educate students of all races today. There are 107 HBCUs representing three percent of the nation\'s colleges and universities with the majority established in the Southeast.[147][148] HBCUs have been largely responsible for establishing and expanding the African American middle-class by providing more career opportunities for African Americans.[149][150]
Economic statusFurther information: Black-owned businessThe economic disparity between the races in the US has marginally improved since the end of slavery. In 1863, two years prior to emancipation, Black people owned 0.5 percent of the national wealth, while in 2019 it is just over 1.5 percent.[151] Racial disparity in poverty rates has narrowed since the civil rights era, with the poverty rate among African Americans decreasing from 24.7% in 2004 to 18.8% in 2020, compared to 10.5% for all Americans.[152][153] Poverty is associated with higher rates of marital stress and dissolution, physical and mental health problems, disability, cognitive deficits, low educational attainment, and crime.[154]
African Americans have a long and diverse history of business ownership. Although the first African American business is unknown, slaves captured from West Africa are believed to have established commercial enterprises as peddlers and skilled craftspeople as far back as the 17th century. Around 1900, Booker T. Washington became the most famous proponent of African American businesses. His critic and rival W. E. B. DuBois also commended business as a vehicle for African American advancement.[155]This graph shows the real median US household income by race: 1967 to 2011, in 2011 dollars.[156]African Americans had a combined buying power of over $1.6 trillion as of 2021, a 171% increase of their buying power in 2000 but lagging significantly in growth behind American Latinos and Asians in the same timer period (with 288% and 383%, respectively; for reference, US growth overall was 144% in the same period); however, African American net worth had shrunk 14% in the previous year despite strong growth in property prices and the S&P 500. In 2002, African American-owned businesses accounted for 1.2 million of the US\'s 23 million businesses.[157] As of 2011, African American-owned businesses account for approximately 2 million US businesses.[158] Black-owned businesses experienced the largest growth in number of businesses among minorities from 2002 to 2011.[158]
Twenty-five percent of Blacks had white-collar occupations (management, professional, and related fields) in 2000, compared with 33.6% of Americans overall.[159][160] In 2001, over half of African American households of married couples earned $50,000 or more.[160] Although in the same year African Americans were over-represented among the nation\'s poor, this was directly related to the disproportionate percentage of African American families headed by single women; such families are collectively poorer, regardless of ethnicity.[160]
In 2006, the median earnings of African American men was more than Black and non-Black American women overall, and in all educational levels.[161][162][163][164][165] At the same time, among American men, income disparities were significant; the median income of African American men was approximately 76 cents for every dollar of their European American counterparts, although the gap narrowed somewhat with a rise in educational level.[161][166]
Overall, the median earnings of African American men were 72 cents for every dollar earned of their Asian American counterparts, and $1.17 for every dollar earned by Hispanic men.[161][164][167] On the other hand, by 2006, among American women with post-secondary education, African American women have made significant advances; the median income of African American women was more than those of their Asian-, European- and Hispanic American counterparts with at least some college education.[162][163][168]
The US public sector is the single most important source of employment for African Americans.[169] During 2008?2010, 21.2% of all Black workers were public employees, compared with 16.3% of non-Black workers.[169] Both before and after the onset of the Great Recession, African Americans were 30% more likely than other workers to be employed in the public sector.[169] The public sector is also a critical source of decent-paying jobs for Black Americans. For both men and women, the median wage earned by Black employees is significantly higher in the public sector than in other industries.[169]
In 1999, the median income of African American families was $33,255 compared to $53,356 of European Americans. In times of economic hardship for the nation, African Americans suffer disproportionately from job loss and underemployment, with the Black underclass being hardest hit. The phrase \"last hired and first fired\" is reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics unemployment figures. Nationwide, the October 2008 unemployment rate for African Americans was 11.1%,[170] while the nationwide rate was 6.5%.[171] In 2007, the average income for African Americans was approximately $34,000, compared to $55,000 for Whites.[172] African Americans experience a higher rate of unemployment than the general population.[173]
The income gap between Black and White families is also significant. In 2005, employed Blacks earned 65% of the wages of Whites, down from 82% in 1975.[152] The New York Times reported in 2006 that in Queens, New York, the median income among African American families exceeded that of White families, which the newspaper attributed to the growth in the number of two-parent Black families. It noted that Queens was the only county with more than 65,000 residents where that was true.[119] In 2011, it was reported that 72% of Black babies were born to unwed mothers.[174] The poverty rate among single-parent Black families was 39.5% in 2005, according to Walter E. Williams, while it was 9.9% among married-couple Black families. Among White families, the respective rates were 26.4% and 6% in poverty.[175]
Collectively, African Americans are more involved in the American political process than other minority groups in the United States, indicated by the highest level of voter registration and participation in elections among these groups in 2004.[176] African Americans also have the highest level of Congressional representation of any minority group in the US.[177]
African American homeownership
The US homeownership rate according to race[178]Homeownership in the US is the strongest indicator of financial stability and the primary asset most Americans use to generate wealth. African Americans continue to lag behind other racial groups in homeownership.[179] In the first quarter of 2021, 45.1% of African Americans owned their homes, compared to 65.3% of all Americans.[180] The African American homeownership rate has remained relatively flat since the 1970s despite an increase in anti-discrimination housing laws and protections.[181] The African American homeownership rate peaked in 2004 at 49.7%.[182]
The average White high school drop-out still has a slightly better chance of owning a home than the average African American college graduate usually due to unfavorable debt-to-income ratios or credit scores among most African American college graduates.[183][184] Since 2000, fast-growing housing costs in most cities have made it even more difficult for the US African American homeownership rate to significantly grow and reach over 50% for the first time in history. From 2000 to 2022, the median home price in the US grew 160%, outpacing average annual household income growth in that same period, which only grew about 30%.[185][186][187] South Carolina is the state with the most African American homeownership, with about 55% of African Americans owning their own homes.[188][189]
Black people, who make up 12% of the total U.S. population, make up 32% of all people experiencing homelessness, according to the data.[190]
PoliticsYear Candidate ofthe plurality Politicalparty % ofBlackvote Result1980 Jimmy Carter Democratic 83% Lost1984 Walter Mondale Democratic 91% Lost1988 Michael Dukakis Democratic 89% Lost1992 Bill Clinton Democratic 83% Won1996 Bill Clinton Democratic 84% Won2000 Al Gore Democratic 90% Lost2004 John Kerry Democratic 88% Lost2008 Barack Obama Democratic 95% Won2012 Barack Obama Democratic 93% Won2016 Hillary Clinton Democratic 88% Lost2020 Joe offeren Democratic 87% Won2024 Kamala Harris Democratic 85% LostSince the mid 20th century, a large majority of African Americans support the Democratic Party. In the 2024 Presidential election, 86% of African American voters supported Democrat Kamala Harris, while 13% supported Republican Donald Trump.[191] Although there is an African American lobby in foreign policy, it has not had the impact that African American organizations have had in domestic policy.[192]
Many African Americans were excluded from electoral politics in the decades following the end of Reconstruction. For those that could participate, until the New Deal, African Americans were supporters of the Republican Party because it was Republican President Abraham Lincoln who helped in granting freedom to American slaves; at the time, the Republicans and Democrats represented the sectional interests of the North and South, respectively, rather than any specific ideology, and both conservative and liberal were represented equally in both parties.
The African American trend of voting for Democrats can be traced back to the 1930s during the Great Depression, when Franklin D. Roosevelt\'s New Deal program provided economic relief to African Americans. Roosevelt\'s New Deal coalition turned the Democratic Party into an organization of the working class and their liberal allies, regardless of region. The African American vote became even more solidly Democratic when Democratic presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson pushed for civil rights legislation during the 1960s. In 1960, nearly a third of African Americans voted for Republican Richard Nixon.[193]
Conservatism has been growing among African Americans, particularly since the 2020 Presidential election. In the 2024 election, Trump secured a slightly larger share of the African American vote compared to his 2020 performance.[194][195][196]
Black national anthem
\"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" being sung by the family of Barack Obama, Smokey Robinson and others in the White House in 2014\"Lift Every Voice and Sing\" is often referred to as the Black national anthem in the United States.[197] In 1919, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) had dubbed it the \"Negro national anthem\" for its power in voicing a cry for liberation and affirmation for African-American people.[198]
ReligionReligious affiliation of African Americans in 2007[199]Black Protestant (59.0%)Evangelical Protestant (15.0%)Mainline Protestant (4.00%)Roman Catholic (5.00%)Jehovah\'s Witness (1.00%)Other Christian (1.00%)Muslim (1.00%)Other religion (1.00%)Unaffiliated (11.0%)Atheist or agnostic (2.00%)Main article: Religion of Black AmericansFurther information: Black church, Hoodoo (folk magic), and Louisiana Voodoo
Mount Zion United Methodist Church is the oldest African American congregation in Washington, D.C.
Masjid Malcolm Shabazz in Harlem, New York CityThe majority of African Americans are Protestant, many of whom follow the historically Black churches.[200] The term Black church refers to churches which minister to predominantly African American congregations. Black congregations were first established by freed slaves at the end of the 17th century, and later when slavery was abolished more African Americans were allowed to create a unique form of Christianity that was culturally influenced by African spiritual traditions.[201] One of these early African American Christian cultural traditions in the Black Church is the Watchnight service, also called Freedom\'s Eve, where African American congregations all over the nation come together on New Year\'s Eve through New Years morning in remembrance of the eve and New Year of their emancipation, sharing testimonies, being baptized and partaking in praise and worship.[202]
According to a 2007 survey, more than half of the African American population are part of the historically Black churches.[203] The largest Protestant denomination among African Americans are the Baptists,[204] distributed mainly in four denominations, the largest being the National Baptist Convention, USA and the National Baptist Convention of America.[205] The second largest are the Methodists,[206] the largest denominations are the African Methodist Episcopal Church and the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.[205][207]
Pentecostals are distributed among several different religious bodies, with the Church of God in Christ as the largest among them by far.[205] About 16% of African American Christians are members of White Protestant communions,[206] these denominations (which include the United Church of Christ) mostly have a 2 to 3% African American membership.[208] There are also large numbers of Catholics, constituting 5% of the African American population.[203] Of the total number of Jehovah\'s Witnesses, 22% are Black.[200]
Some African Americans follow Islam. Historically, between 15 and 30% of enslaved Africans brought to the Americas were Muslims, but most of these Africans were converted to Christianity during the era of American slavery.[209] During the twentieth century, some African Americans converted to Islam, mainly through the influence of Black nationalist groups that preached with distinctive Islamic practices; including the Moorish Science Temple of America, and the largest organization, the Nation of Islam, founded in the 1930s, which attracted at least 20,000 people by 1963.[210][211] Prominent members included activist Malcolm X and boxer Muhammad Ali.[212]Muhammad Ali converted to Islam in 1964.Malcolm X is considered the first person to start the movement among African Americans towards mainstream Islam, after he left the Nation and made the pilgrimage to Mecca.[213] In 1975, Warith Deen Mohammed, the son of Elijah Muhammad took control of the Nation after his father\'s death and guided the majority of its members to orthodox Islam.[214]
African American Muslims constitute 20% of the total US Muslim population,[215] the majority are Sunni or orthodox Muslims, some of these identify under the community of W. Deen Mohammed.[216][217] The Nation of Islam led by Louis Farrakhan has a membership ranging from 20,000 to 50,000 members.[218]
There is also a small but growing group of African American Jews, making up less than 0.5% of African Americans or about 2% of the Jewish population in the United States. The majority of African-American Jews are Ashkenazi, while smaller numbers identify as Sephardi, Mizrahi, or other.[219][220][221] Many African-American Jews are affiliated with denominations such as the Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or Orthodox branches of Judaism, but the majority identify as \"Jews of no religion\", commonly known as secular Jews. A significant number of people who identify themselves as \"Black Jews\" are affiliated with syncretic religious groups, largely the Black Hebrew Israelites, whose beliefs include the claim that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Israelites.[222] Jews of all races typically do not accept Black Hebrew Israelites as Jews, in part because they are usually not Jewish according to Jewish law,[223] and in part because these groups are sometimes associated with antisemitism.[224][225] African-American Jews have criticized the Black Hebrew Israelites, regarding the movement as primarily composed of Black non-Jews who have appropriated Black-Jewish identity.[226]
Confirmed atheists are less than one half of one percent, similar to numbers for also: African-American LGBT communityAccording to a Gallup survey, 4.6% of Black or African Americans self-identified as LGBT in 2016,[230] while the total portion of American adults in all ethnic groups identifying as LGBT was 4.1% in 2016.[230] African Americans are more likely to identify themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender than any other racial or ethnic group in the United States.[231]
HealthFurther information: Race and health in the United States § African AmericansSee also: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on black people § United StatesGeneral healthSee also: Alzheimer\'s disease in African AmericansThe life expectancy for Black men in 2008 was 70.8 years.[232] Life expectancy for Black women was 77.5 years in 2008.[232] In 1900, when information on Black life expectancy started being collated, a Black man could expect to live to 32.5 years and a Black woman 33.5 years.[232] In 1900, White men lived an average of 46.3 years and White women lived an average of 48.3 years.[232] African American life expectancy at birth is persistently five to seven years lower than European Americans.[233] Black men have shorter lifespans than any other group in the US besides Native American men.[234]
Black people have higher rates of obesity, diabetes, and hypertension than the US average.[232] For adult Black men, the rate of obesity was 31.6% in 2010.[235] For adult Black women, the rate of obesity was 41.2% in 2010.[235] African Americans have higher rates of mortality than any other racial or ethnic group for 8 of the top 10 causes of death.[236] In 2013, among men, Black men had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by White, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander (A/PI), and American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) men. Among women, White women had the highest rate of getting cancer, followed by Black, Hispanic, Asian/Pacific Islander, and American Indian/Alaska Native women.[237] African Americans also have higher prevalence and incidence of Alzheimer\'s disease compared to the overall average.[238][239]
Black women lead the nation in abortions. According to a 2022 report, Black women made up 40% of abortions despite making up 13% of the U.S. woman population.[240][241] African-Americans are more likely than White Americans to die due to health-related problems developed by alcoholism. Alcohol abuse is the main contributor to the top 3 causes of death among African Americans.[242]
In December 2020, African Americans were less likely to be vaccinated against COVID-19 due to mistrust in the US medical system. From 2021 to 2022, there was an increase in African Americans who became vaccinated.[243][244][245] Still, in 2022, COVID-19 complications became the third leading cause of death for African Americans.[246]
Violence is a major problem within the African American community.[247][248] A report from the US Department of Justice states \"In 2005, homicide victimization rates for Blacks were 6 times higher than the rates for Whites\".[249] The report also found that \"94% of Black victims were killed by Blacks.\"[249] Of the nearly 20,000 recorded US homicides in 2022, African Americans made up the majority of offenders and victims despite making up less than 15% of the population.[250] In 2024, all of the top 5 most dangerous US cities have a significant Black population and highly concerning Black-on-Black violent crime rate.[251] Black males age 15?44 are the only race/sex category for which homicide is a top 5 cause of death.[234] Black women are 3 times more likely to be killed by an intimate partner than White women.[247] Black children are 3 times more likely to die due to parental abuse and neglect than White children.[252]
Sexual healthAccording to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, African Americans have higher rates of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) compared to Whites, with 5 times the rates of syphilis and chlamydia, and 7.5 times the rate of gonorrhea.[253]
The disproportionately high incidence of HIV/AIDS among African Americans has been attributed to homophobic influences, lack of condom usage, and lack of proper healthcare.[254] The prevalence of HIV/AIDS among Black men is seven times higher than the prevalence for White men, and Black men are more than nine times as likely to die from HIV/AIDS-related illness than White men.[234] The prevalence of HIV/AIDS among Black women is 20 times higher than White women, and Black women are more than 15 times as likely to die from HIV/AIDS-related illness than White women.[255][256]
Mental healthAfrican Americans have several barriers for accessing mental health services. Counseling has been frowned upon and distant in utility and proximity to many people in the African American community. In 2004, a qualitative research study explored the disconnect with African Americans and mental health. The study was conducted as a semi-structured discussion which allowed the focus group to express their opinions and life experiences. The results revealed a couple key variables that create barriers for many African American communities to seek mental health services such as the stigma, lack of four important necessities; trust, affordability, cultural understanding and impersonal services.[257]
Historically, many African American communities did not seek counseling because religion was a part of the family values.[258] African American who have a faith background are more likely to seek prayer as a coping mechanism for mental issues rather than seeking professional mental health services.[257] In 2015 a study concluded, African Americans with high value in religion are less likely to utilize mental health services compared to those who have low value in religion.[259]
In the United States, counseling approaches are based on the experience of White Americans and do not fit within the African American culture. African American families tend to resolve concerns within the family, and it is viewed by the family as a strength. On the other hand, when African Americans seek counseling, they face a social backlash and are criticized. They may be labeled \"crazy\", viewed as weak, and their pride is diminished.[257] Because of this, many African Americans instead seek mentorship within communities they trust.
Terminology is another barrier in relation to African Americans and mental health. There is more stigma on the term psychotherapy versus counseling. In one study, psychotherapy is associated with mental illness whereas counseling approaches problem-solving, guidance and help.[257] More African Americans seek assistance when it is called counseling and not psychotherapy because it is more welcoming within the cultural and community.[260] Counselors are encouraged to be aware of such barriers for the well-being of African American clients. Without cultural competency training in health care, many African Americans go unheard and misunderstood.[257]
In 2021, African Americans had the third highest suicide rate trailing American Indians/Alaska Natives and White Americans. However, African Americans had the second highest increase of its suicide rate from 2011 to 2021, growing 58%.[261] As of 2024, suicide is the second leading cause of death among African-Americans between the ages of 15 and 24, with Black men being four times more likely to kill themselves than Black women.[262]
GeneticsSee also: Genetic history of the African diasporaGenome-wide studies
Genetic clustering of 128 African Americans, by Zakharia et al. (2009). Each vertical bar represents an individual. The color scheme of the bar plot matches that in the PCA plot.[263]Recent studies of African Americans using genetic testing have found ancestry to vary by region and sex of ancestors. These studies found that on average, African Americans have 73.2?82.1% Sub-Saharan African, 16.7?24% European, and 0.8?1.2% Native American genetic ancestry, with large variation between individuals.[264][265][266] Commercial testing services have reported similar variation, with ranges from 0.6 to 2 percent Native American, 19 to 29 percent European, and 65 to 80 percent Sub-Saharan African ancestry.[267]
According to a genome-wide study by Bryc et al. (2009), the mixed ancestry of African Americans in varying ratios came about as the result of sexual contact between West/Central Africans (more frequently females) and Europeans (more frequently males). This can be understood as being the result of enslaved African American females being raped by White males.[268] Consequently, the 365 African Americans in their sample have a genome-wide average of 78.1% West African ancestry and 18.5% European ancestry, with large variation among individuals (ranging from 99% to 1% West African ancestry). The West African ancestral component in African Americans is most similar to that in present-day speakers from the non-Bantu branches of the Niger-Congo family.[264][note 2]
Correspondingly, Montinaro et al. (2014) observed that around 50% of the overall ancestry of African Americans traces comes from a population similar to the Niger-Congo-speaking Yoruba of southern Nigeria and southern Benin, reflecting the centrality of this West African region in the Atlantic slave trade. The next most frequent ancestral component found among African Americans was derived from Great Britain, in keeping with historical records. It constitutes a little over 10% of their overall ancestry and is most similar to the Northwest European ancestral component also carried by Barbadians.[270] Zakharia et al. (2009) found a similar proportion of Yoruba-like ancestry in their African American samples, with a minority also drawn from Mandenka and Bantu populations. Additionally, the researchers observed an average European ancestry of 21.9%, again with significant variation between individuals.[263] Bryc et al. (2009) note that populations from other parts of the continent may also constitute adequate proxies for the ancestors of some African American individuals; namely, ancestral populations from Guinea Bissau, Senegal and Sierra Leone in West Africa and Angola in Southern Africa.[264] An individual African American person can have over fifteen African ethnic groups in their genetic makeup alone due to the slave trade covering such vast areas.[271]
Altogether, genetic studies suggest that African Americans are a genetically diverse people. According to DNA analysis led in 2006 by Penn State geneticist Mark D. Shriver, around 58 percent of African Americans have at least 12.5% European ancestry (equivalent to one European great-grandparent and their forebears), 19.6 percent of African Americans have at least 25% European ancestry (equivalent to one European grandparent and their forebears), and 1 percent of African Americans have at least 50% European ancestry (equivalent to one European parent and their forebears).[272][273] According to Shriver, around 5 percent of African Americans also have at least 12.5% Native American ancestry (equivalent to one Native American great-grandparent and their forebears).[274][275] Research suggests that Native American ancestry among people who identify as African American is a result of relationships that occurred soon after slave ships arrived in the American colonies, and European ancestry is of more recent origin, often from the decades before the Civil War.[276]
Y-DNAAfricans bearing the E-V38 (E1b1a) likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west, approximately 19,000 years ago.[277] E-M2 (E1b1a1) likely originated in West Africa or Central Africa.[278] According to a Y-DNA study by Sims et al. (2007), the majority (?60%) of African Americans belong to various subclades of the E-M2 (E1b1a1, formerly E3a) paternal haplogroup. This is the most common genetic paternal lineage found today among West/Central African males and is also a signature of the historical Bantu migrations. The next most frequent Y-DNA haplogroup observed among African Americans is the R1b clade, which around 15% of African Americans carry. This lineage is most common today among Northwestern European males. The remaining African Americans mainly belong to the paternal haplogroup I (?7%), which is also frequent in Northwestern Europe.[279]
mtDNAAccording to an mtDNA study by Salas et al. (2005), the maternal lineages of African Americans are most similar to haplogroups that are today especially common in West Africa (>55%), followed closely by West-Central Africa and Southwestern Africa (<41%). The characteristic West African haplogroups L1b, L2b,c,d, and L3b,d and West-Central African haplogroups L1c and L3e in particular occur at high frequencies among African Americans. As with the paternal DNA of African Americans, contributions from other parts of the continent to their maternal gene pool are insignificant.[280]
Racism and social statusSee also: Income inequality in the United StatesFormal political, economic and social discrimination against minorities has been present throughout American history. Leland T. Saito, Associate Professor of Sociology and American Studies & Ethnicity at the University of Southern California, writes, \"Political rights have been circumscribed by race, class and gender since the founding of the United States, when the right to vote was restricted to White men of property. Throughout the history of the United States, race has been used by Whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion.\"[65]
Those who economically gained the most from slavery were the planter class, owners of large-scale plantations where large numbers of enslaved Africans were held captive and forced to produce crops to create wealth for a White elite.[281] Having a prominent role in politics with eight presidents owning slaves while in office, upon the end of the Civil War the planter class kept control of their land and remained politically influential, with the London School of Economics stating, \"this persistence in \"de facto power\" in turn allowed them to block economic reforms, disenfranchise Black voters, and restrict the mobility of workers.\"[282]
Although they have gained a greater degree of social equality since the civil rights movement, African Americans have remained stagnant economically, which has hindered their ability to break into the middle class and beyond. As of 2020, the racial wealth gap between Whites and Blacks remains as large as it was in 1968, with the typical net worth of a White household equivalent to that of 11.5 Black households.[283] Despite this, African Americans have increased employment rates and gained representation in the highest levels of American government in the post?civil rights era.[284] However, widespread racism remains an issue that continues to undermine the development of social status.[284][285]
Economically, of all the racially Black ethnic groups on the globe, African Americans are the wealthiest and most successful, with one in every fifty African American families being millionaires.[286] This equates in 2023 to approximately 1.79 million African American millionaires in the United States,[287][288] which is more than the number of millionaires in any racially Black country, and many other countries, around the world.
Policing and criminal justiceSee also: Race and crime in the United States and Racial profiling in the United StatesIn the US, which has the largest per-capita prison population in the world, African Americans are overrepresented as the second largest population of prison inmates (38%) in 2023, coming second to Whites who made up 57% of the prison population.[289] According to the National Registry of Exonerations, Blacks are roughly 7.5 times more likely to be wrongfully convicted of murder in the US than Whites.[290] In 2012, the New York City Police Department detained people more than 500,000 times under the city\'s stop-and-frisk law. Of the total detained, 55% were African-Americans, while Black people made up 20% of the city\'s population.[291]Al Sharpton led the Commitment March: Get Your Knee Off Our Necks protest on August 28, 2020.African American males are more likely to be killed by police when compared to other races.[292] This is one of the factors that led to the creation of the Black Lives Matter movement in 2013.[293] A historical issue in the US where women have weaponized their White privilege in the country by reporting on Black people, often instigating racial violence,[294][295] difficult White women?who have been given a different name over the centuries by African Americans?calling the police on Black people became widely publicized in 2020.[296][297] According to The Guardian, \"The specter of Karen persisted as Black Lives Matter protests and civil unrest spread around the country following Floyd\'s murder and reckonings with racism began to roil institutions, toppling careers as well as statues\".[298]
In the aftermath of the peak Black Lives Matter protests and widespread police reform efforts in the early 2020s, crime rates surged across the nation, especially in predominantly Black neighborhoods. Many cities experienced near-record or record levels of violence and other criminal activity. As a result, numerous municipalities scaled back police reform initiatives and increased funding for law enforcement.[299][300][301]
Social issuesAfter over 50 years, marriage rates for all Americans began to decline while divorce rates and out-of-wedlock births have climbed.[302] These changes have been greatest among African Americans. After more than 70 years of racial parity Black marriage rates began to fall behind Whites.[302] Single-parent households have become common, and according to US census figures released in January 2010, only 38 percent of Black children live with both their parents.[303] In 2021, statistics show that over 80 percent marriages in the African American ethnic group marry within their ethnic group.[304]Although the ban on interracial marriage ended in California in 1948, entertainer Sammy Davis Jr. faced a backlash for his involvement with a White woman in 1957.The first ever anti-miscegenation law was passed by the Maryland General Assembly in 1691, criminalizing interracial marriage.[305] In a speech in Charleston, Illinois in 1858, Abraham Lincoln stated, \"I am not, nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people\".[306] By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes.[305] By 1924, the ban on interracial marriage was still in force in 29 states.[305] While interracial marriage had been legal in California since 1948, in 1957 actor Sammy Davis Jr. faced a backlash for his involvement with White actress Kim Novak.[307] Harry Cohn, the president of Columbia Pictures, with whom Novak was under contract, gave in to his concerns that a racist backlash against the relationship could hurt the studio.[307] Davis briefly married Black dancer Loray White in 1958 to protect himself from mob violence.[307] Inebriated at the wedding ceremony, Davis despairingly said to his best friend, Arthur Silber Jr., \"Why won\'t they let me live my life?\" The couple never lived together, and commenced divorce proceedings in September 1958.[307] In 1958, officers in Virginia entered the home of Mildred and Richard Loving and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that \"any white person intermarry with a colored person\"?or vice versa?each party \"shall be guilty of a felony\" and face prison terms of five years.[305] In 1967 the law was ruled unconstitutional (via the 14th Amendment adopted in 1868) by the US Supreme Court in Loving v. Virginia.[305]
In 2008, Democrats overwhelmingly voted 70% against California Proposition 8, African Americans voted 58% in favor of it while 42% voted against Proposition 8.[308] On May 9, 2012, Barack Obama, the first Black president, became the first US president to support same-sex marriage. Since Obama\'s endorsement there has been a rapid growth in support for same-sex marriage among African Americans. As of 2012, 59% of African Americans support same-sex marriage, which is higher than support among the national average (53%) and White Americans (50%).[309]
Polls in North Carolina,[310] Pennsylvania,[311] Missouri,[312] Maryland,[313] Ohio,[314] Florida,[315] and Nevada[316] have also shown an increase in support for same sex marriage among African Americans. On November 6, 2012, Maryland, Maine, and Washington all voted for approve of same-sex marriage, along with Minnesota rejecting a constitutional amendment banning same-sex marriage. Exit polls in Maryland show about 50% of African Americans voted for same-sex marriage, showing a vast evolution among African Americans on the issue and was crucial in helping pass same-sex marriage in Maryland.[317]
Black Americans hold far more conservative opinions on abortion, extramarital sex, and raising children out of wedlock than Democrats as a whole.[318] On financial issues, however, African Americans are in line with Democrats, generally supporting a more progressive tax structure to provide more government spending on social services.[319]
Political legacy
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. remains the most prominent political leader in the American civil rights movement and perhaps the most influential African American political figure in general.African Americans have fought in every war in the history of the United States.[320]
The gains made by African Americans in the civil rights movement and in the Black Power movement not only obtained certain rights for African Americans but changed American society in far-reaching and fundamentally important ways. Prior to the 1950s, Black Americans in the South were subject to de jure discrimination, or Jim Crow laws. They were often the victims of extreme cruelty and violence, sometimes resulting in deaths: by the post World War II era, African Americans became increasingly discontented with their long-standing inequality. In the words of Martin Luther King Jr., African Americans and their supporters challenged the nation to \"rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed that all men are created equal ...\"[321]
The civil rights movement marked an enormous change in American social, political, economic and civic life. It brought with it boycotts, sit-ins, nonviolent demonstrations and marches, court battles, bombings and other violence; prompted worldwide media coverage and intense public debate; forged enduring civic, economic and religious alliances; and disrupted and realigned the nation\'s two major political parties.
Over time, it has changed in fundamental ways the manner in which Blacks and Whites interact with and relate to one another. The movement resulted in the removal of codified, de jure racial segregation and discrimination from American life and law, and heavily influenced other groups and movements in struggles for civil rights and social equality within American society, including the Free Speech Movement, the disabled, the women\'s movement, and migrant workers. It also inspired the Native American rights movement, and in King\'s 1964 book Why We Can\'t Wait he wrote the US \"was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrine that the original American, the Indian, was an inferior race.\"[322][323]
Media and coverageSee also: Representation of African Americans in media and African-American newspapers
BET founder Robert L. Johnson with former US President George W. BushSome activists and academics contend that American news media coverage of African American news, concerns, or dilemmas is inadequate,[324][325][326] or that the news media present distorted images of African Americans.[327]
To combat this, Robert L. Johnson founded Black Entertainment Television (BET), a network that targets young African Americans and urban audiences in the United States. Over the years, the network has aired such programming as rap and R&B music videos, urban-oriented movies and television series, and some public affairs programs. On Sunday mornings, BET would broadcast Christian programming; the network would also broadcast non-affiliated Christian programs during the early morning hours daily. According to Viacom, BET is now a global network that reaches households in the United States, Caribbean, Canada, and the United Kingdom.[328] The network has gone on to spawn several spin-off channels, including BET Her (originally launched as BET on Jazz).[329]
Another network targeting African Americans is TV One. TV One is owned by Urban One, founded and controlled by Catherine Hughes. Urban One is one of the nation\'s largest radio broadcasting companies and the largest African American-owned radio broadcasting company in the United States.[330]
In June 2009, NBC News launched a new website named TheGrio.[331] It is the first African American video news site that focuses on underrepresented stories in existing national news.[332]
Black-owned and oriented media outletsThe Africa Channel ? Dedicated to programming about African culture.aspireTV ? a digital cable and satellite channel owned by businessman and former basketball player Magic Johnson.ATTV ? an independent public affairs and educational channel.BET Media Group ? The most prominent multimedia outlet targeting Afro-Americans.BETBET HerVH1 ? Originally a MTV spin-off focused on light genres of music, the network\'s programming became slanted towards African American culture during the 2010s.[333]Bounce TV ? a digital multicast network owned by the E. W. Scripps Company.Fox Soul ? a digital television and streaming network primarily airing original talk shows and syndicated programmingOprah Winfrey Network ? a cable and satellite network founded by Oprah Winfrey and jointly owned by Warner Bros. Discovery and Harpo Studios. While not exclusively targeting African Americans, much of its original programming is geared towards a similar demographic.Revolt ? a music channel and media company founded by Sean \"Puff Daddy\" Combs.Soul of the South Network ? a regional broadcast network.TheGrio ? a digital multicast network focused on news and opinion-based programming.TV One ? a general entertainment network targeting adults.Cleo TV ? a sister network targeting millennial and Generation X womenWe TV ? Owned by AMC Networks, became slanted towards Black women during the 2010sCultureFurther information: African-American cultureSee also: African-American art
A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken with macaroni and cheese, collard greens, breaded fried okra, and cornbreadFrom their earliest presence in North America, African Americans have significantly contributed literature, art, agricultural skills, cuisine, clothing styles, music, language, and social and technological innovation to American culture. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to West African and African American influences. Notable examples include George Washington Carver, who created nearly 500 products from peanuts, sweet potatoes, and pecans.[334] Soul food is a variety of cuisine popular among African Americans. It is closely related to the cuisine of the Southern United States. The descriptive terminology may have originated in the mid-1960s, when soul was a common definer used to describe African American culture (for example, soul music). African Americans were the first peoples in the United States to make fried chicken, along with Scottish immigrants to the South. Although the Scottish had been frying chicken before they emigrated, they lacked the spices and flavor that African Americans had used when preparing the meal. The Scottish American settlers therefore adopted the African American method of seasoning chicken.[335] However, fried chicken was generally a rare meal in the African American community and was usually reserved for special events or celebrations.[336]
LanguageMain article: African-American EnglishSee also: Black American Sign Language, Gullah language, Afro-Seminole Creole, and Louisiana CreoleAfrican-American English is a variety (dialect, ethnolect, and sociolect) of American English, commonly spoken by urban working-class and largely bi-dialectal middle-class African Americans.[337] It shares parts of its grammar and phonology with the Southern American English dialect. African American English differs from Standard American English (SAE) in certain pronunciation characteristics, tense usage, and grammatical structures, which were derived from West African languages (particularly those belonging to the Niger?Congo family).[338]
Virtually all habitual speakers of African American English can understand and communicate in Standard American English. As with all linguistic forms, AAVE\'s usage is influenced by various factors, including geographical, educational and socioeconomic background, as well as formality of setting.[338] Additionally, there are many literary uses of this variety of English, particularly in African American literature.[339]
Other languages are spoken by specific sub-communities. The Gullah language is an English-based creole language spoken mostly in the coastal regions of South Carolina and Georgia by the Gullah;[340] an off-shoot of this is Afro-Seminole Creole spoken by Black Seminoles mostly now in Mexico and Brackettville, Texas.[341] Louisiana Creole is a French-based creole and spoken mostly in Louisiana.[342]
Traditional namesMain article: African-American namesAfrican-American names are part of the cultural traditions of African Americans, most of these cultural names having no connection to Africa but strictly an African American cultural practice that developed in the United States during enslavement.[343] This new evidence became apparent by census records which show African Americans and White Americans, though they spoke the same language, chose to use different names even during times of enslavement, which is where and when the development of African American cultural names began.[343]
Prior to this newer information, it was only thought that before the 1950s, and 1960s, most African-American names closely resembled those used within European-American culture.[344] Babies of that era were generally given a few common names, with children using nicknames to distinguish the various people with the same name. With the rise of 1960s civil rights movement, there was a dramatic increase in names of various origins.[345]
By the 1970s, and 1980s, it had become common among African Americans to invent new names for themselves, although many of these invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le, Da/De, Ra/Re and Ja/Je, and suffixes like -ique/iqua, -isha and -aun/-awn are common, as are inventive spellings for common names. The book Baby Names Now: From Classic to Cool?The Very Last Word on First Names places the origins of \"La\" names in African-American culture in New Orleans.[346]
Even with the rise of inventive names, it is still common for African Americans to use biblical, historical, or traditional European names. Daniel, Christopher, Michael, David, James, Joseph, and Matthew were thus among the most frequent names for African-American boys in 2013.[344][347][348]
The name LaKeisha is typically considered American in origin but has elements that were drawn from both French and West/Central African roots. Names such as LaTanisha, JaMarcus, DeAndre, and Shaniqua were created in the same way. Punctuation marks are seen more often within African American names than other American names, such as the names Mo\'nique and D\'Andre.[344]
Music
The King & Carter Jazzing Orchestra photographed in Houston, Texas, January 1921
Chuck Berry is considered a pioneer of rock and roll.African American music is one of the most pervasive African American cultural influences in the United States today and is among the most dominant in mainstream popular music. Hip hop, R&B, funk, rock and roll, soul, blues, and other contemporary American musical forms originated in Black communities and evolved from other Black forms of music, including blues, doo-wop, barbershop, ragtime, bluegrass, jazz, and gospel music.
African American-derived musical forms have also influenced and been incorporated into virtually every other popular music genre in the world, including country and techno. African American genres are the most important ethnic vernacular tradition in America, as they have developed independent of African traditions from which they arise more so than any other immigrant groups, including Europeans; make up the broadest and longest lasting range of styles in America; and have, historically, been more influential, interculturally, geographically, and economically, than other American vernacular traditions.[349]
DanceAfrican Americans have also had an important role in American dance. Bill T. Jones, a prominent modern choreographer and dancer, has included historical African American themes in his work, particularly in the piece \"Last Supper at Uncle Tom\'s Cabin/The Promised Land\". Likewise, Alvin Ailey\'s artistic work, including his \"Revelations\" based on his experience growing up as an African American in the South during the 1930s, has had a significant influence on modern dance. Another form of dance, stepping, is an African American tradition whose performance and competition has been formalized through the traditionally Black fraternities and sororities at universities.[350]
SportsThis section is an excerpt from African Americans in sports.[edit]Discussions of race and sports in the United States, where the two subjects have always been intertwined in American history, have focused to a great extent on African Americans. Depending on the type of sport and performance level, African Americans are reported to be over- or under-represented. African Americans compose the highest percentage of the minority groups active at the professional level, but are among those who show the lowest participation overall. And though the list of African Americans in professional sports remains high, it only represents a small fraction of aspiring black athletes.
Literature and academics
Toni Morrison, recipient of the Nobel Prize for literatureMany African American authors have written stories, poems, and essays influenced by their experiences as African Americans. African American literature is a major genre in American literature. Famous examples include Langston Hughes, James Baldwin, Richard Wright, Zora Neale Hurston, Ralph Ellison, Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison, and Maya Angelou.
African American inventors have created many widely used devices in the world and have contributed to international innovation. Norbert Rillieux created the technique for converting sugar cane juice into white sugar crystals. Moreover, Rillieux left Louisiana in 1854 and went to France, where he spent ten years working with the Champollions deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphics from the Rosetta Stone.[351] Most slave inventors were nameless, such as the slave owned by the Confederate President Jefferson Davis who designed the ship propeller used by the Confederate navy.[352]
By 1913, over 1,000 inventions were patented by Black Americans. Among the most notable inventors were Jan Matzeliger, who developed the first machine to mass-produce shoes,[353] and Elijah McCoy, who invented automatic lubrication devices for steam engines.[354] Granville Woods had 35 patents to improve electric railway systems, including the first system to allow moving trains to communicate.[355] Garrett A. Morgan developed the first automatic traffic signal and gas mask.[356]
Lewis Howard Latimer invented an improvement for the incandescent light bulb.[357] More recent inventors include Frederick McKinley Jones, who invented the movable refrigeration unit for food transport in trucks and trains.[358] Lloyd Quarterman worked with six other Black scientists on the creation of the atomic bomb (code named the Manhattan Project)[359] and helped develop the first nuclear reactor.[360]
As part of the preservation of their culture, African Americans have continuously launched their own publications and publishing houses, such as Robert Sengstacke Abbott, founder of the Chicago Defender newspaper, and Carter G. Woodson, the founder of Black History Month who spent over thirty years documenting and publishing African American history in journals and books. The Johnson Publishing Company, founded by John H. Johnson in 1942, is a National Historic parade float displayed the word \"Afro-Americans\" in 1911.The term African American was popularized by Jesse Jackson in the 1980s,[6] although there are recorded uses from the 18th and 19th centuries,[362] for example, in post-emancipation holidays and conferences.[363][364] Earlier terms also used to describe Americans of African ancestry referred more to skin color than to ancestry. Other terms (such as colored, person of color, or negro) were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which some thought were being used as tools of White supremacy and oppression.[365]Michelle Obama was the First Lady of the United States; she and her husband, President Barack Obama, are the first African Americans to hold these positions.A 16-page pamphlet entitled \"A Sermon on the Capture of Lord Cornwallis\" is notable for the attribution of its authorship to \"An African American\". Published in 1782, the book\'s use of this phrase predates any other yet identified by more than 50 years.[366]
In the 1980s, the term African American was advanced to give descendants of American slaves, and other American Blacks who lived through the slavery era, a heritage and a cultural base.[365] The term was popularized in Black communities around the country via word of mouth and ultimately received mainstream use after Jesse Jackson\'s use in 1988. Subsequently, major media outlets adopted it.[365]
Surveys in the 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century showed that the majority of Black Americans had no preference for African American versus Black American,[367] although they had a slight preference for the latter in personal settings and the former in more formal settings.[368] By 2021, according to polling from Gallup, 58% of Black Americans expressed no preference for what their group should be called, with 17% each preferring Black and African-American. Among those with no preference, Gallup found a slight majority favored Black \"if [they] had to choose.\"[369]
In 2020, the Associated Press updated its AP Stylebook to direct its writers to capitalize the first letter of Black when it is used \"in a racial, ethnic or cultural sense, conveying an essential and shared sense of history, identity and community among people who identify as Black, including those in the African diaspora and within Africa.\"[370] The New York Times and other outlets made similar changes at the same time.[371]
In 2023, the government released a new more detailed breakdown due to the rise in racially Black immigration into the US, listing African American as a compound termed ethnicity, distinguished from other racially Black ethnicities such as Nigerian, Jamaican etc.[372]
The term African American embraces pan-Africanism as earlier enunciated by prominent African thinkers such as Marcus Garvey, W. E. B. Du Bois, and George Padmore. The term Afro-Usonian, and variations of such, are more rarely used.[373][374]
Official identity
Racially segregated Negro section of keypunch operators at the US Census BureauSince 1977, in an attempt to keep up with changing social opinion, the United States government has officially classified Black people (revised to Black or African American in 1997) as \"having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa.\"[375] Other federal offices, such as the US Census Bureau, adhere to the Office of Management and Budget standards on race in their data collection and tabulation efforts.[376] In preparation for the 2010 US census, a marketing and outreach plan called 2010 Census Integrated Communications Campaign Plan (ICC) recognized and defined African Americans as Black people born in the United States. From the ICC perspective, African Americans are one of three groups of Black people in the United States.[377]
The ICC plan was to reach the three groups by acknowledging that each group has its own sense of community that is based on geography and ethnicity.[378] The best way to market the census process toward any of the three groups is to reach them through their own unique communication channels and not treat the entire Black population of the US as though they are all African Americans with a single ethnic and geographical background. The Federal Bureau of Investigation of the US Department of Justice categorizes Black or African American people as \"[a] person having origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa\" through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, US Department of Commerce, derived from the 1977 Office of Management and Budget classification.[379]
AdmixtureSee also: Interracial marriage in the United States, Miscegenation § United States, Multiracial American, One-drop rule, and hypodescentHistorically, \"race mixing\" between Black and White people was taboo in the United States. So-called anti-miscegenation laws, barring Blacks and Whites from marrying or having sex, were established in colonial America as early as 1691,[380] and endured in many Southern states until the Supreme Court ruled them unconstitutional in Loving v. Virginia (1967). The taboo among American Whites surrounding White-Black relations is a historical consequence of the oppression and racial segregation of African Americans.[381] Historian David Brion Davis notes the racial mixing that occurred during slavery was frequently attributed by the planter class to the \"lower-class white males\" but Davis concludes that \"there is abundant evidence that many slaveowners, sons of slaveowners, and overseers took Black mistresses or in effect raped the wives and daughters of slave families.\"[382] A famous example was Thomas Jefferson\'s mistress, Sally Hemings.[383] Although publicly opposed to race mixing, Jefferson, in his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1785, wrote: \"The improvement of the Blacks in body and mind, in the first instance of their mixture with the whites, has been observed by every one, and proves that their inferiority is not the effect merely of their condition of life\".[384]
Harvard University historian Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote in 2009 that \"African Americans...are a racially mixed or mulatto people?deeply and overwhelmingly so\". After the Emancipation Proclamation, Chinese American men married African American women in high proportions to their total marriage numbers due to few Chinese American women being in the United States.[385] African slaves and their descendants have also had a history of cultural exchange and intermarriage with Native Americans,[386] although they did not necessarily retain social, cultural or linguistic ties to Native peoples.[387] There are also increasing intermarriages and offspring between non-Hispanic Blacks and Hispanics of any race, especially between Puerto Ricans and African Americans.[388]
Racially mixed marriages have become increasingly accepted in the United States since the civil rights movement.[389] Approval in national opinion polls has risen from 36% in 1978, to 48% in 1991, 65% in 2002, 77% in 2007.[390] A Gallup poll conducted in 2013 found that 84% of Whites and 96% of Blacks approved of interracial marriage, and 87% overall.[391] Black men are more than twice as likely to date and marry interracially than Black women.[392]
At the end of World War II, some African American military men stationed in Japan and Germany impregnated local non-Black women, resulting in the birth of thousands of mixed-race children. Many of these families later immigrated to the United States.[393][394]
Terminology disputeAuthor Debra Dickerson has argued that the term Black should refer strictly to the descendants of Africans who were brought to America as slaves, and not to the sons and daughters of Black immigrants who lack that ancestry. Thus, under her definition, President Barack Obama, who is the son of a Kenyan, is not Black.[395][396] She makes the argument that grouping all people of African descent together regardless of their unique ancestral circumstances would inevitably deny the lingering effects of slavery within the American community of slave descendants, in addition to denying Black immigrants recognition of their own unique ancestral backgrounds. \"Lumping us all together\", Dickerson wrote, \"erases the significance of slavery and continuing racism while giving the appearance of progress.\"[395] Similar comments have been made concerning Kamala Harris, the daughter of a Caribbean immigrant, who was elected vice president in 2020.[397][398][399]
Similar viewpoints to Dickerson\'s have been expressed by author Stanley Crouch in a New York Daily News piece, Charles Steele Jr. of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference[400] and African American columnist David Ehrenstein of the Los Angeles Times, who accused White liberals of flocking to Blacks who were Magic Negros, a term that refers to a Black person with no past who simply appears to assist the mainstream White (as cultural protagonists/drivers) agenda.[401] Ehrenstein went on to say \"He\'s there to assuage white \'guilt\' they feel over the role of slavery and racial segregation in American history.\"[401]
The American Descendants of Slavery (ADOS) movement coalesces around this view, arguing that Black descendants of American slavery deserve a separate ethnic category that distinguishes them from other Black groups in the United States.[402] Their terminology has gained popularity in some circles, but others have criticized the movement for a perceived bias against (especially poor and Black) immigrants, and for its often inflammatory rhetoric.[397][403][404] Politicians such as Obama and Harris have received especially pointed criticism from the movement, as neither are ADOS and have spoken out at times against policies specific to them.[398][399]
Many Pan-African movements and organizations that are ideologically Black nationalist, anti-imperialist, anti-Zionist, and Scientific socialist like The All-African People\'s Revolutionary Party (A-APRP), have argued that African (relating to the diaspora) or New Afrikan should be used instead of African American.[405] Most notably, Malcolm X and Kwame Ture expressed similar views that African Americans are Africans who \"happen to be in America\", and should not claim or identify as being American if they are fighting for Black (New Afrikan) liberation. Historically, this is due to the enslavement of Africans during the transatlantic slave trade, ongoing anti-Black violence, and structural racism in countries like the United States.[406][407]
Terms no longer in common useBefore the independence of the Thirteen Colonies until the abolition of slavery in 1865, an African American slave was commonly known as a negro. Free negro was the legal status in the territory of an African American person who was not enslaved.[408] In response to the project of the American Colonization Society to transport free Blacks to the future Liberia, a project most Blacks strongly rejected, the Blacks at the time said they were no more African than White Americans were European, and referred to themselves with what they considered a more acceptable term, \"colored Americans\". The term was used until the second quarter of the 20th century, when it was considered outmoded ? although it was retained in the name of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) ? and generally gave way again to the exclusive use of negro,. By the 1940s, the term was commonly capitalized (Negro); but by the mid-1960s, it was considered disparaging. By the end of the 20th century, negro had come to be considered inappropriate and was rarely used and perceived as a pejorative.[409][410] The term is rarely used by younger Black people, but remained in use by many older African Americans who had grown up with the term, particularly in the Southern US.[411] The term remains in use in some contexts, such as the United Negro College Fund, an American philanthropic organization.
There are many other deliberately insulting terms, many of which were in common use (e.g., nigger), but had become unacceptable in normal discourse before the end of the 20th century. One exception is the use, among the Black community, of the slur nigger rendered as nigga, representing the pronunciation of the word in African American English. This usage has been popularized by American rap and hip-hop music cultures and is used as part of an in-group lexicon and speech. It is not necessarily derogatory and, when used among Black people, the word is often used to mean \"homie\" or \"friend\".[412] Acceptance of intra-group usage of the word nigga is still debated, although it has established a foothold among younger generations. The NAACP denounces the use of both nigga and nigger.[413]
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